Discrimination faced by LGBT Essay

Introduction There have been several anti-gay bills introduced in several states across the country in which some states are against and some are for the bill. We would like to discuss the issues that the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) individuals have faced across the nation by presenting the facts from reliable sources. The issues, challenges, and opportunities experienced by this group in the labor force will be brought to our attention. We would like to explain how society has identified this group and the legal issues they face. We plan to deal with the social, economic, religious, and governmental aspect of LGBT rights while living in this country and other countries through out the world. Different states have different ideas about the acceptance and rejection of LGBT. We would like to focus on the issues, laws, identities, challenges, opportunities, solution, and discriminatory actions that LGBT individuals encounter through the labor force as well as in society. Issues, Ch allenges, and Opportunities While the LBGT communities continue to face discrimination in the work place, there have been laws set in motion and even passed giving them the equal rights as other citizens of our country. Some LGBT workers have reported some form of harassment and mistreatment on the job across the years, causing a great impact on our nation’s views. The workplace abuses have posed a real and immediate threat to our economic security. We feel that Congress should quickly pass the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) to ensure that all Americans are judged in the workplace, not according to their identity, but rather according to their skills, qualifications, and quality of work they perform. Too many are judged according to their sexual and gender identity rather than their performances. A lady by the name of Dolores Huerta gave a rousing speech back in 2009, at the National Conferences on LGBT equality, urging a change in the labor, race, and LGBT movement for a better future. Within certain areas, there are now laws in  place which prohibits employment discrimination against public and private workers on the basis of their gender identity and sexual orientation; however, until these laws are taken serious, the LGBT workers in state and local government will continue to face un-equality and discrimination on the job. Without certain laws passed, they will be unable to take legal action to protect themselves and their families. Some of the challenges they face are Social Security survivor’s benefits, paid to the same sex life partner of someone who dies, their medical regulations, social insulations, ageism, and hospital visitation with the right to die in the same nursing home of same sex partners. There are tax laws and other regulations of 401Ks and pensions that also discriminate against same sex partners. Today the LGBT now have opportunities in the labor force that allows them to ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ (DADT) which is a policy regarding the LGBT serving in the military. They now have the opportunity for equality as other citizens, academic achievements, benefits of same sex marriages under federal law, equal employment benefits, legal permanent residency, and domestic partnership benefits. â€Å"The increased visibility of LGBT people, combined with more assertive demands for equal rights, has generated considerable legal action. For the past decade, federal, state, and municipal legislators debated changes in legislation that would affect LGBT minorities in almost every aspect of their lives, including violence and harassment, employment and housing discrimination, adoption and child care, domestic partner benefits, and the freedom to marry. In some jurisdictions, the legal changes are widespread; in others, however, there has been little or no change† (Harvey & Allard, 2009, p. 211). How Society Views LGBT Society has discriminated against the LGBT community for a long time, but in most present and recent history acceptance of the LGBT community, they have grown; however, there is still almost complete polarization to how accepted the community is. In a study from the University of Chicago, from 1973, based upon the question of whether or not sexual relations between two adults of the same sex is acceptable, 69.7 percent of the people participating stated it to be completely unacceptable and only 10.7 percent stated it to be completely acceptable (Smith 2011). Where as to the same survey that took place in 2010, 43.5 percent stated homosexual acts to be  unacceptable and 40.6 percent stated homosexual relations to be completely acceptable (Smith 2011). Why has there been such a change? Well, the majority of acceptance comes from younger generations being more socially open, as to older generations who have grown into their own opinions already. Another reason is media as stated here â€Å"as society has become more accepting of gay people, the media has presented increasingly positive images of gays and lesbians, succeeding generations are raised with more tolerant attitudes (Gossett & Lewis 2008)† Politics behind Discrimination against the LGBT Community In a political view, being homosexual has been an extremely large subject that has left the LGBT Community at a constant struggle for equal rights. A major issue the LGBT community faces is the denial of the right to marry and receive the benefits of marriage under state recognition. Due to the balancing of powers that our country is built upon, it is each individual states duty to recognize what it viewed as right or wrong in the state’s community. Unfortunately same-sex marriage has been ban within the vast majority of states within the United States. There are currently only 17 states, which have legalized same-sex marriage (17 States). Same-sex marriage has been a major dispute for ethical righteousness since May 18th, 1970. On that very day two men in Minnesota applied for a marriage license only to be denied the right to marry by the state judge. The two men had come to the decision to sue the judge taking the case all the way up to Supreme Court only to be denied the right to marry. This case â€Å"Baker v. Nelson† has been used since then to block efforts for marriage equality (Gay Marriage). Another obstacle to equality is the adoption law. There are many states that require strict qualifications to adopt, and adoption is currently legal within 21 states and D.C. (Parenting Laws). Under national law there are currently anti-discrimination laws within housing, employment, hate crimes, conjugal visits, and military service. Discrimination toward the gay community is still very present, but it is slowly being diminished by the strong efforts of the gay community Interesting fact: Under FDA policy on blood donations, men who have had sex with other men may not donate blood (U.S. Food and Drug). Existing or Proposed Solutions of Differing Groups The Lesbian Gay Bisexual & Transgender Project (LGBT) works for an America free of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) LGBT Project was created to provide a society where LGBT people can enjoy the constitutional rights of privacy, equality, personal autonomy, and freedom of expression and association (aclu.org/lbgt-rights). The ACLU founded the LGBT project in 1986 with a strategy believing that fighting for society we want not only means changing the viewpoint of judges and government officials, but changing the way society looks at the LGBT community (aclu.org/lbgt-rights). In order to stop discrimination, the ACLU looks to change the law and also convince Americans gender identity and sexual orientation discrimination is wrong. There are five areas at which the ACLU carry out this work: Parenting, Youth and Schools, Basic Rights and Liberties, Relationships and Marriage, and Transgender Discrimination (aclu.org/lbgt-rights). Currently the ACLU presents more LGBT cases and advocacy initiatives than any other national organization. With connections to legislatures and courts in all states, the ACLU is the only organization making progress in both the court of law and public opinion. How Other Countries View the Issue Internationally, the issue of gay marriage can be a taboo topic, and often the endorsement and safeguard of homosexual couples’ rights are repudiated by political and customary pressures. Nonetheless, the legalization of gay marriage is gaining momentum as other countries are setting precedents by actively pursuing the rights of homosexual couples that want to marry by changing laws and widening traditional views. Currently, 15 countries have legitimatized gay marriage; two of those with laws that have not yet been sanctioned (Freedom to Marry, 2013). Gay marriage is legitimate, with all marriage rights comprehensive, in the Netherlands, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, South Africa, Spain, Norway, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, France, Denmark, and Brazil. New Zealand and Uruguay have legalized gay marriage, but it has yet to become ordained. In addition to these countries, United States and Mexico have only legalized gay marriage and all marriage privileges inclusive, in certain regi ons with many other regions failing to recognize gay marriage (Freedom to Marry, 2013). Moreover, in some nations where gay  marriage is recognized and legalized, homosexual couples who wish to marry must meet the requirements set forth by the country’s government. Spain and the Netherlands require that at least one partner have legal citizenship of their country or become a resident if they wish to marry there (Moore, 2005). In the ongoing international battle to afford same-sex marriages the same rights as traditional marriages, there are countries that fail to recognize gay marriages as they are not accepted as upright or legal, but do lend some protections of a civil union. Ecuador, Finland, Germany, Greenland, Hungary, Ireland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom are just a few countries where rights of a union are recognized, but gay marriage is not. Other Countries Attitudes about homosexuality vary. The LGBT has faced discrimination in many other countries. In the Asia-Pacific, the majority of ASEAN nations and East Asian countries feel that homosexuality should be rejected. In neighboring China (the world’s most populous country) more than half of the population rejects it. In India (the second most populous country), the national Supreme Court recently re-instated a law criminalizing same-sex acts. Also, in 38 of 54 countries on the African continent, being gay is a crime. In developing countries throughout the world, homophobia and intolerance is the norm. Even Poland, once part of the former Soviet bloc and now a EU member state, favors rejection. Not very long ago, a law was passed in Russia banning gay propaganda. The law in effect makes it illegal to equate straight and gay relationships, as well as the distribution of material on gay rights. It also introduces fines for individuals and media groups found guilty of breaking the law, as well as special fines for foreigners. More recently, we witnessed the bashing lesbian, gay bi-sexual and transsexual people during the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Many found it very disappointing that Russia was chosen as a host county despite the opposition of Russia’s treatment of its LGBT community. Compromise/Solutions Protecting LGBT people from violence and discrimination does not require the creation of a new set of LGBT-specific rights, nor does it require the establishment of new international human rights standards. The legal  obligations of States to safeguard the human rights of LGBT people are well established in international human rights law on the basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and subsequently agreed international human rights treaties. All people, irrespective of sex, sexual orientation or gender identity, are entitled to enjoy the protections provided for by international human rights law, including in respect of rights to life, security of person and privacy, the right to be free from torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, the right to be free from discrimination and the right to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly. As of late, there have been many States that have made a determined effort to strengthen human rights protection for LGBT pe ople. An array of new laws have been adopted, including laws banning discrimination, penalizing homophobic hate crimes, granting recognition of same-sex relationships, and making it easier for transgender individuals to obtain official documents that reflect their preferred gender. Conclusion Over the years, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals in the Unites States have been classified in a negative way. This group of individuals has experienced legal issues and challenges because of society’s opinion on how they should live and the rights that they should have. Unfortunately, LGBT not only faces challenges in the United States, but across the world, as well. Information was presented on legal issues that have occurred. Though it has been difficult, the LGBT supporters have lobbied for equal rights and recognition. The group has made progress throughout the United States, but there are still concerns worldwide. Although there is still much work to be done to give this group the respect they deserve, continuing to educate society on the importance of diversity and equality will be essential in living harmoniously. References: 17 States with Legal Gay Marriage and 33 States with Same-Sex Marriage Bans – Gay Marriage – ProCon.org. (n.d.). ProConorg Headlines. Retrieved April 25, 2014, from http://gaymarriage.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=004857 Elder, M. (2013, June 11). Russia passes law banning gay ‘propaganda’. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/russia-law-banning-gay-propaganda Freedom to Marry. (2013). The freedom to marry internationally. Retrieved from http://www.freedomtomarry.org/landscape/entry/c/international Gay Marriage Timeline – Gay Marriage – ProCon.org. (n.d.). ProConorg Headlines. Retrieved April 25, 2014, from http://gaymarriage.procon.org/view.timeline.php?timelineID=000030 Gossett, C., & Lewis, G. (2008). Changing Public Opinion on Same Sex Marriage: The Case of California. Academia.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from http://www.academia.edu/539760/Changing_Public_Opinion_on_Same_Sex_Marriage_The_Case_of_California Harvey, C. P., & Allard, M. J. (2009). Understanding and Managing Diversity: (4th ed.). Retrieved from Pearson Education, Inc. McDonnell, Justin (2014, February 15). Olympics cast spotlight on Russia’s LGBT discrimination. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2014/02/sochi-olympics-cast- spotlight- on-russias-lgbt-discrimination/ Moore, J. (2005) The battle over same-sex marriages. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/gay_marriage/unions.html Parenting Laws: Joint Adoption. (n.d.). Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved April 27, 2014, from http://www.hrc.org/files/assets/resources/parenting_joint-adoption_082013.pdf Smith, T. (2011, September). Public Attitudes Toward Homosexuality. NORC. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from http://www.norc.org/PDFs/2011GSSReports/GSS_PublicAttitudesTowardHomosexuality_Sept2011.pdf U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (n.d.). Blood Donations from Men Who Have Sex with Other Men Questions and Answers. Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/BloodBloodProducts/QuestionsaboutBlood/ucm108186.htm

What is ERP?

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An ERP system may also be regarded as the actualization of a blueprint availed by the framework of a business. In the case that the ERP transits to a cloud server, the architecture of the company similarly moves. As such, it is essential to provide configuration details about the technology architecture of an enterprise. Comparatively, the design needs to be defined by an enterprise as long as it uses a cloud computing model. Important to realize, this architecture should also depict better performance compared to the systems that do not entail the cloud-adaptin method. Consequently, to affirm that the ERP can migrate successfully, the blueprint proposed by the enterprise need to be critically evaluated as it is a fundamental need of the architecture. In comparison with the orthodox ERP, the cloud-based ERP comprises of a system where users can access resources through the Internet. However, the former relies on the availability of a Local Area Network (LAN) for the operation of the ERP in the enterprise. LAN connects computers from one organization within a single building by use of a network termed as an intranet. Multi-tenancy is a popular notion in software architecture mainly used in the cloud-based application. Significantly, it concerns a single set of applications used to manage the several users on one instance. The term implies that although the availed resources have a unique sole purpose, their design allows for them to remain mostly adjustable to satisfy the needs of the business. The potential to manage several users is achieved through sharing hardware and data storage. Despite the sharing of resources, the security of data needs to be upheld to avoid specific users from affecting others on the network. Therefore, there are four entities which have to be assessed. First, resource isolation is vital based on the fact that tenants make use of a similar infrastructure and code (Gunawan and Surendro 61). Second, the configuration aspects imply that data needs to have characteristics that are adaptable to suit various tenants. Third, the element of security calls for measurements to be put in place owing to the high risk sharing codes and data among tenants poses. Finally, the scalability concept appeals to the design and applicability of the software for to satiate conditions for reaching levels that can be measured. The most common approach for the multi-tenant concept is Separate Database. Arguably, it is one of the simplest models for isolating data as data for each user is kept separately. However, there is also a Shared Database approach where all tenants occupy similar database instances although they are all assigned an own schema. In this strategy, data from all users is kept in one database using a similar schema. The cloud-based ERP system allows its users to configure the service required from the host. This is necessary to fulfill individual needs and still upholding the integrity of data. The concept is entirely valid although the blueprint provided by an enterprise determines the architecture and necessary ERP modules. Such information is relevant for choosing the specific modules responsible for purchasing modules that contribute towards organizational development (Zhu and Dong 4765). The principal reason behind customization and identifying particular modules depends on the financial capability of companies. Importantly, the multi-tenancy concept allows the provider to avail specific packages in light os the needs of every tenant without having to alter the whole system software. Comparison to Recent Technological Developments While cloud computing is a significant step forward in business, many businesses have not yet adopted this technology. The ERP system focuses extensively on the infrastructure without considering the end-user. As such, it only enhances the reliability which is not as significant to businesses. The Blockchain industry is young although it is quite capable mainly since it offers solutions in the supply chain. The technology can implement logistics metrics concerning order deliveries. Unlike the cloud-based ERP system, blockchain overcomes the forth and back step issue. It empowers all members in a supply chain which fosters the development of all critical contributors within a system. A step forward in cloud-based ERP system implies two steps backward to the end user. The explanation relates to the reason why innovations are directed towards upgrading the interface and improving the performance. Companies Affected While many businesses are continually adopting the cloud-based ERP solutions, specific enterprises are employing the system given the minimal IT requirements it demands. Notably, this system is applicable for distribution, service, and nonprofit businesses. On that note, however, new startups and accomplished mid-sized companies stand a chance to benefit the most. Successful and established companies are likely to stick to the traditional technologies. Conclusion Cloud-based ERP system is one of the most successful software adopted by companies since the introduction. It allows users to access computing resources remotely although the Internet needs to be present. With a multi-tenant architecture, several users can operate a database in one instance without disruption. The enterprise specifications determine the nature of the system and the security of data needs to be sensitized. ?

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Impeachment of two U.S. Presidents, Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton Essay

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Health Profession Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Health Profession Assignment - Essay Example caused by binge eating of foods rich in energy, lack of physical exercise, genetic predisposition, endocrine disorders and side effects of some medicines. There is a dearth of evidence, though, that people who eat reasonable foods may suffer from the condition due to an impaired metabolism. Poor dieting and lack of body exercise are the key triggers of obesity. Individuals with the condition or those who are vulnerable to the condition are advised to improve their eating habits by limiting their consumption of too fatty, salt and sugar foods, and instead eat more foods rich in fiber. Xu, Chepyator-Thomson and Culp (2010) say anti-obesity medications which normally reduce appetite or impede absorption of fats in adjunct to an appropriate diet are some of the interventions for the condition. If diet, physical exercise and drugs have proved ineffective, doctors normally recommend the use of a gastric balloon to help reduce some weight in the victims. Yet in serious situations, surgery has been used to reduce the size of the stomach; this method impairs satiation and the body’s ability to absorb food nutrients. Segrave (2008) indicated that obesity is one of the preventable health conditions in the world which cause deaths and with a growing prevalence in all demographics. In light of its seriousness, authorities now perceive it as one of the gravest public health conditions in the current world. Obesity is an unwanted condition in virtually any part of the world, particularly in North America and Western Europe, though in the past and in some underdeveloped countries, the condition is still being linked to riches and fertility. In 2013, obesity was categorized by the American Medical Association as an illness. As Borengasser et al (2014) have suggested the Healthy People 2020 document advocates for a society in which the whole population has a higher life expectancy and healthy lives. In light of this, Obesity is one of the core health conditions it grapples

Management and Graphical Front Ends Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management and Graphical Front Ends - Assignment Example MySQL is officially pronounced /maÉ ªÃ‹Å'É›skju:ˈɛl/ ("My S-Q-L"),[2] but is often also pronounced /maÉ ªÃ‹Ë†si:kwÉ™l/ ("My Sequel"). It is named for original developer Michael Widenius daughter My. The SQL phrase stands for Structured Query Language.[3] The MySQL development project has made its source code available under the terms of the GNU General Public License, as well as under a variety of proprietary agreements. MySQL was owned and sponsored by a single for-profit firm, the Swedish company MySQL AB, now owned by Oracle Corporation.[4] Members of the MySQL community have created several forks (variations) such as Drizzle, OurDelta, Percona Server, and MariaDB. All of these forks were in progress before the Oracle acquisition; Drizzle was announced eight months before the Sun acquisition. Free-software projects that require a full-featured database management system often use MySQL. Such projects include (for example) WordPress, phpBB, Drupal and other software built on the LAMP software stack. MySQL is also used in many high-profile, large-scale World Wide Web products, including Wikipedia, Google[5] and Facebook.[6] MySQL is a popular choice of database for use in web applications, and is a central component of the widely used LAMP web application software stack  Ã¢â‚¬â€ the LAMP is an acronym for "Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP". Its popularity is closely tied to the popularity of PHP. MySQL is used in some of the most frequently visited websites on the Internet, including Flickr, Facebook, Google  Ã¢â‚¬â€ though not for searches, Nokia.com and YouTube. MySQL works on many different system platforms, including AIX, BSD, FreeBSD, HP-UX, i5/OS, Linux, Mac OS X, NetBSD, Novell NetWare, OpenBSD, OpenSolaris, eComStation, OS/2 Warp, QNX, IRIX, Solaris, Symbian, SunOS, SCO OpenServer, SCO UnixWare, Sanos, Tru64 and Microsoft Windows.  

Bangladesh and Education Essay Example for Free

Bangladesh and Education Essay Education a simple word that is one of the major drivers of our planet earth. Through education people get to know who they are, where they came from and where they will be heading in the near future. Education is the spearhead of a society. It is because of proper education that people get to know about the diversity of this unpredictable world. Education forges the lives of those who get it. Education is one of the important factors that affect the quality and the means of leading a prosperous life. Bangladesh was described as one of the poorest countries of this world after the liberation war in 1971. It had gone through harsh phases of floods, droughts, cyclones, famines and other natural calamities and at present one of the world’s most crowded countries still remains well below the poverty line and as a result most of the population is still illiterate. Education still and always will remain an important form of social capital in this world. Education fosters innovation, contributes to the economic growth of a country and also increases the efficiency, effectivity and productivity of all the individuals who get the light of education. The World Bank (WB) approved generous amount of loans in the recent past to promote and improve the education sector of Bangladesh. However, the government and the NGOs are playing an active role in the development process by educating the mass population of Bangladesh and the whole course of action mainly focus their vision on the children and women. In Bangladesh the educational process is so slow and weak that the development process has become sluggish. OBJECTIVE Education system in Bangladesh is three-tiered and highly subsidized and the Bangladesh government operates many education institution in the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels. Through the University Grants Commission, the government funds more than 35 state universities in the tertiary education sector. Bangladesh emphasizes on the education For All (EFA) objectives, Millennium Development Goal (MDG) and the International Declarations. According to the articles 15 and 17 of the Constitution of Bangladesh, every citizen has the right to education and all children between the ages of 6-18 should receive primary and secondary education free of charge. The government should provide the underprivileged children with free books and education free of cost. METHODOLOGY As we are the students of RS, we were unable to go outside to meet with people and conduct interviews with them. So, to gather our information and data, we had to go though different forums, journals, books and different websites. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. From 1971 our education system started officially. At the beginning of the education system in Bangladesh the number of schools and universities were very poor. There were only 6 public universities in 1971. But now the numbers of universities are increasing. Now the numbers of primary schools are near about 76000. The great point system started from 2000 and the JSC and JDC education system was started from 2010. In recent years Bangladesh has adopted various strategies to educate the general people mainly the children. In education sector BRAC’s contribution is bigger. Sir Fazle Hassan Abed founded BRAC School at 1972. In the history of education BRAC played an important role . EDUCATION SYSTEM AFTER LIBERATION After the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971, the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh became an independent nation free to choose its own educational destiny. As Bangladesh was, and still is, a secular state, many forms of education were permitted to co-exist. The formidable British system was, and still is, largely practiced. In fact, presently, the Bangladeshi system of education is divided into three different branches. Students are free to choose anyone of them provided that they have the means. These branches are: The English Medium English medium schools are mainly private and thus reserved for the wealthy class. After three years of pre-school, students must successfully pass through ten grades to be eligible for writing the Ordinary Level Exams, also called the O-Levels. Then after one more year of studies, students can write the Advanced Level (A-Level) Exams. The Bengali Medium the Bengali Medium, which is offered by the government. In the Bengali Medium, all the courses are offered in Bengali with the exception of English courses and the Religious course. The tuition fee is minimal compared to English schools but they still vary largely between schools. After three years of pre-school, students in the Bengali medium do five years of primary school. Then they move to high school for grade five to grade ten. At the end of the tenth grade, they appear for their SSC (Secondary School Certificate) exam. Afterwards, they move on to two years of college following which they have to write for the HSC (Higher School Certificate) exam. The Religious Branch Bangladesh is a very poor country with millions of homeless children. To educate these children, there are religious institutions called Madrashas where these children are sheltered, fed and taught the ways of Islam by priests. These children learn the scripts from the Koran and the regular prayers. Literacy situation in Bangladesh Period Census The 1974 census defined literacy as the ability to read and write in any language. This definition was in conformity with the UNESCO; one accepted throughout the world. The definition of literacy used in the 1981 census covered only persons of age 5 years and above and included those who could write a letter in any language. The 1991 census also defined literacy as the ability to write a letter in any language but covered persons of age 7 years and above. The effect of change in definition of literate has been reflected in the literacy rates of different census years. Increase in Literacy Literacy rate among people of all ages rose from 17% in 1961 to 24. 9% in census year 1991. For the 7 years and above age group, the literacy rate increased from 26. 8% in 1974 to 32. 4% in 1991. In all census periods, the literacy rates were higher among the males than among the females. The female literacy rate, however, rose significantly in the 1991 census. It was 16. 4% in 1974 and 25. 5% in 1991. Urban rural variation in literacy rate is also quite evident in all census periods. Literacy rates in urban areas are higher than in rural areas in all census periods. Adult literacy Adult literacy rate for population 15 and above is defined as the ratio between the literate population of the age 15 years and over to the total population of the same age expressed in percentage. This rate for both sexes was 25. 9% in the 1974 census and 29. 2% in the 1981 census. In the 1991 census the rate was 35. 3%. In all census periods, male adult literacy rate was higher than the female. Educated adults come to the urban areas for better employment and education. As a result, the adult literacy level of urban population is much higher than that of their rural counterparts in all census years. However, the gap between urban-rural literacy rate narrowed in 1991, as did the gap between the male and female population. This is due to rural peoples increasing participation in education in recent times. Steps of Bangladesh after Liberation towards development of education The independence of Bangladesh generated a new enthusiasm in both government and private level in efforts to expand literacy and remove illiteracy. The Bangladesh Constitution of 1972 provides the basis for a policy on universal primary education. The policy has three components: establishing a uniform mass oriented and universal system of education; extending free and compulsory education to all children; and relating education to the needs of society and removing illiteracy. Keeping in view the constitutional directives, Bangladesh committed itself to implement the recommendations of The World Conference on Education for All (1990), The World Summit on Children (1990) and The Summit Declaration on Education for All (1993). Primary Education of Bangladesh Primary education was recognised as the foundation of preparing literate citizens of the country in all national documents, reports of the commissions, and committees on education. But this stage of education got a momentum only after the enactment of the Compulsory Primary Education Law of 1990. Compulsory primary education under this Act was introduced in 1992 in 68 thanas, and all over the country in 1993. Measures such as satellite schools, community schools, and Food for Education Programme were taken up to increase enrolment and decrease dropout. The new primary curriculum based on terminal competencies was implemented in 1992. These steps resulted in some improvements in various efficiency indicators of primary education such as in gross enrolment ratio and the completion rate and raised the participation of girls in primary education. In addition to state intervention, from the second half of 1980s, the government allowed NGOs to experiment with a variety of delivery mechanisms to cater to the basic educational needs of the disadvantaged population. Role of BRAC BRAC launched its education programme in 1985 with 22 one-room primary schools following non-formal approach. The goal of the BRAC Education Programme is to make a significant contribution to the achievement of education for all in Bangladesh. The BRAC Education Programme is mainly focusing on   increase access of basic education in unreached and underserved population improve quality in formal education system support the government in achieving Millennium Development Goal 2 Education for All by 2015 ? In sheer size, BRAC operates the largest private school system in the world: 1. 1 million students (70% of them are girls) are enrolled at present in 37,000 BRAC schools that provide four years of non formal primary education. So far, almost 5 million children have already graduated from primary school and got their basic education from these schools and close to 95% enrol to secondary schools. Education Programme Primary School Operations Primary Schools Currently running24,398 Current Students0. 75 mil Graduates4. 95 mil Cost per Child per YearUSD 32 Schools for Indigenous Children2,441 Pre-Primary Schools Currently Running13,054 Current Students0. 36 mil Graduates4. 33 mil The Five Year Plan(s) According to the Report of Bangladesh Education Commission of 1974, the number of adult men and women illiterates in the country at the time of independence was 35 million. The Report recommended adoption of non-formal and mass education programmes for them. Accordingly, the First Five-Year Plan (1973-78) launched a massive functional literacy programme through non-formal education and allocated Tk 400 million for this subsector. The Second Five-Year Plan (1980-85) attached high priority to eradication of mass illiteracy. In the Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90) the programme was revived with an allocation of Tk 250 million and a modest target of making 2. 4 million adults literate by June 1990. Information from the office of the Integrated Non-Formal Education (INFE) project (former MEP Office) show that only 27 upazilas were covered in this project out of a target of 71 upazilas. A total of 291,600 adults were made literate in five years. In the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1990-95) Tk 235. 70 million was allocated. During the Plan period MEP was continued as a spillover under the project and total of 367,660 adult illiterates of 11-45 years age were made literate. The programme was implemented in 68 thanas of the country. Moreover, under the aegis of the district administration a programme named Total Literacy Movement (TLM) was started in 1995 in Lalmonirhat and Bhola districts. It was later extended to 15 other districts. Preparatory work is now under way to extend TLM to 22 more districts. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) adopted an ambitious objective to achieve the goal of Education for All (EFA) by the end of Plan period 2002. The major objectives are to increase gross enrolment in primary schools to 110 percent (net 95%) with particular emphasis on enrolment of girls and on increasing completion rate of primary education to at least 75 percent by the year 2002. The Fifth Plan also set up some important objectives of mass education consistent with the overall objectives of achieving the goal of EFA and fulfilling the educational needs of 30 million adult illiterates. These objectives are to increase literacy rate of adults (15 years and above) to 80% by the year 2002, to empower learners with technical skills, entrepreneurial traits and leadership skills, to empower skills related to literacy, numeracy and communication, to reduce gender gap in literacy rates in both rural and urban areas, and to develop continuing education programme for neo-literates. ? BANGLADESH, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS OF 2005 ? BASIC EDUCATION STATISTICS, 2010 Number of Institution, Enrolment and Teacher in Post-Primary and Primary by management and sex, 2010 Type of SchoolManage. mentInstitutionTeacherStudentIndicators TotalTotalFem. % FemTotalGirl% GirlTSRSPITPI Primary School EducationPublic3767218145510543158. 109885697506116551. 20542625 Private450021995026812834. 157018849347542149. 52351564 Total8267438095717355945. 5616904546853658650. 50442045 Secondary School EducationPrivate187232107804791722. 737240497387315753. 493438711 Public3177231241733. 4322527710651947. 283171123 Total190402180115033423. 097465774397967653. 313439211 College EducationPrivate3068773201626521. 04150516671642347. 601949125 Public2569900231023. 3388910935852340. 3290347339. Total3324872201857521. 302394275107494644. 902772026 Madrasah EducationPublic310400. 0060642313. 8158202135 Private93581077431091110. 132194863116742753. 192023512 TOTAL93611078471091110. 122200927116765853. 052023512 University EducationPublic319163165618. 072629418198831. 18298482296 Private515710170129. 792009394912524. 45353940112 Total8214873335722. 5746388013111328. 26315657181 Technical Vocational EduPublic251401554213. 501338971799913. 443353316 Private259711286270823. 993140307052122. 46281214 Total284822455461120. 5344792710258122. 90201578 ProfessionalPublic70179548627. 0819120935748. 941127326 Private214312345014. 41508231451628. 561623715 Total284491893619. 03699432387334. 131424617 Teacher EducationPublic90103927526. 47176631005856. 941719612 Private9283025530. 728613243728. 2910949 Total182186953028. 36262761249547. 551414410 All (Post-primary)Public101833247768623. 12155407158467537. 6247152733 Private341034167928020719. 2411514931589360651. 182833812 Total351214500398789319. 5313069002647828149. 572937213 All (Primary + Post-primary)Public3869021470211311752. 6911439768564584049. 35532966 Private7910561629414833524. 0718533780936902750. 55302348 Total11779583099626145231. 46299735481501486750. 09362547 COMPARISON OF EDUCATION AID AND SPENDING OVER THE PERIOD 1980-2008 Figure 5 shows the increasing gap between education aid and government spending. The 1980s illustrate the small gap between aid and spending, which began to increase over time. From 2006 onwards, education aid began to decline and government spending increased. This reflects the relatively low and declining proportion of aid in total education spending. ? TOTAL PRIMARY STUDENT ENROLMENT (1985-2005) Fiscal Year Primary student enrolment (millions) 1985 10. 08 1986 10. 78 1987 11. 26 1988 11. 76 1989 11. 77 1990 12. 34 1991 13. 03 1992 13. 72 1993 14. 2 1994 15. 19 1995 16. 43 1996 17. 07 1997 17. 32 1998 17. 63 1999 19. 61 2000 17. 67 2001 17. 66 2002 17. 56 2003 18. 43 2004 17. 95 2005 16. 23 PRIMARY ENROLMENT Source: Ministry of Education, Bangladesh PROGRESS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT RATE SINCE 2000 One of the key EFA goals is to ensure gender parity in education by 2015 – Unlike most South Asian neighboring countries, Bangladesh has already achieved gender parity in primary and secondary education. The GER and NER for girls have increased from 87. 7 percent and 63. 9 percent to about 88. 4 percent and 67. 4 percent respectively within 2000-05. About 16. 2 million students are currently enrolled in primary schools in Bangladesh, of which about 8 million are girls In an effort to promote the education of the poor, the GoB has been engaged over the past ten years into demand side interventions such as the Food for Education Program (FFE) and the primary stipend program. PROGRESS IN ADULT LITERACY RATE SINCE 2000 According to HIES 2005, Bangladesh is estimated to have about 41. 5 million people aged 15 or more who are illiterate. Considering the extent of poverty and the prevailing high illiteracy rate (about 54 percent in 2000), the GoB gives high priority to non-formal education through basic and post-literacy programs and continuing education. The government also recognizes that the literacy and numeracy skills can help improve the income and welfare status of the poor. Literacy and social mobilization programs have contributed to raising the national literacy rate from 45. 6% to 52. 7% between 2000 and 2005. Bangladesh is likely to meet the EFA target of a 50 percent increase in adult literacy by 2015 if the annual growth rate of literacy rate exceeds 4 percent. The literacy and social mobilization programs are likely to have contributed to raising the national literacy rate from 45. 6 percent to 52. 7 percent between 2000 and 2005 (cf. HIES 2000 2005). In particular female literacy rate has gone up by almost 9 percentage points compared to male literacy rate which only records a 5 percentage point increase. Furthermore, the number of illiterates aged 15 to 30 has decreased from about 15 million to 11. 8 million between 2000 and 2005. Although Rural areas appear to be still lagging behind urban areas. ? PROGRESS IN PRIMARY COMPLETION RATE SINCE 2000 OVERVIEW OF THE PRIMARY EDUCATION AND ADULT EDUCATION Bangladesh sustains one of the largest primary education systems in the world with as many as 80,401 primary institutions of 10 different kinds namely, GPS, RNGPS, NRNGPS, experimental schools, community schools, kindergartens, NGO schools, ebtedaee madrashas, primary sections of high madrashas, primary sections of high schools. According to the School Survey Report 2008, GPS, RNGPS, Experimental and community schools constitute 75% of the total institutions. These four categories of institutions are providing primary education to 81. 9% of the total primary school enrolled children of over 16. 3 million. The proportions of boys and girls enrolled at the primary level are 49. 3% and 50. 7% respectively. A total of 364494 teachers are engaged in primary teaching in all the ten categories of institutions comprising 40. 4% female and 59. 6% male. The proportion of female teachers in GPS, RNGPS, PTI and community schools is 50. 2%, 32. 2%, 39. 0% and 73. 6% respectively and the pupilteacher ratio is 51. 4, 44. 7, 48. 1 and 43. 35 respectively. NGOs in the country have been making significant contribution to the education sector. About 500 NGOs are currently running 48,855 learning centers for providing primary education to 10,24,495 females and 6,06,802 males in the country (CAMPE, 2007). A total of 518 NGOs have been engaged in education programs of which more than 450 have adult literacy programs integrated into NFE. The NGOs are providing adult education to 1,19,277 females and 26,193 males through 6,574 learning centers (CAMPE, 2007). However, some of the major NGOs in the country offering adult education are BRAC, Proshika, Dhaka Ahsania Mission, FIVDB, Action Aid, Swanirvar Bangladesh. BRAC has been the largest NGO in the country operating the largest non-formal education program. It runs 34000 NFPE schools serving 1. 02 million un-enrolled and drop out children of the marginal families. RELATE WITH MDG The Government of Bangladesh has made commitment in the World Education Forum held at Dakar, Senegal in April 2000, towards achievement of Education for All goals and every citizen by the year 2015. The World Education Forum adopted six major goals for education, two of which also became Millennium Development Goals later in the same year. The Dakar goals covered the attainment of Universal Primary Education (UPE) and gender equality, improving literacy and educational quality, and increasing life-skills and early childhood education programs, and were to be achieved within 15 years (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2005:28) However, the gender goal was judged to be particularly urgent – requiring the achievement of parity in enrolments for girls and boys at primary and secondary levels by 2005, and of full equality throughout education by 2015. The Millennium declaration of the United Nations adopted on 8 September 2000 by all member states in the millennium Summit gave birth to eight goals to be achieved by 2015 (UN, 2005:3). Besides the eight goals, there are 18 targets and 48 indicators in the MDGs. All these Aaspects are pertinent to combat poverty, hunger, illiteracy, diseases, inequality between man and woman, infant mortality, maternal mortality, environmental degradation and improving global partnership for development. The second Goal has designated universal primary education that emphasizes the implicit objective of equal education for boys and girls alike and to be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Bangladesh is committed to achieve the MDGs and the goals are included in the countries first Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. By May 2005, the government developed Unlocking the Potential: National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (PRSP). It takes a rights-based approach and identifies four strategic objectives: creating opportunity towards realizing the full potential of children i. e. access to health, nutrition, education, water and sanitation; ensuring the best interests of children in national, social, family and personal situations i. e. empowerment of children; ensuring safety and security at home and in the public space i. e. protection against abuse, exploitation and violence and establishing and protecting children’s rights i. e. social inclusion, decent work and livelihood. PRSP goal is to introduce and strengthen early childhood and pre-school education; introduce a unified and common primary education opportunity for all children; improve quality of primary education; 100% enrolment, and raise all other targets to achieve quality and completion in primary education; increase literacy rate to 80% and expand the scope of NFE beyond the literacy to reach out to the extreme poor and in remote areas (PRSP, 2005:50-51). In summing up the discussion it can be said that Bangladesh has been improving in primary education significantly since independence. Though primary education has been given priority from the emergence of the country but some dramatic changes has been noticed in the 1990s. This decade saw a renewed dedication to the expansion of primary education, and consequently primary education experienced significant enhancement during the period. In 1990, in a major policy direction Bangladesh made commitment to international compliance and as a result WCEFA came into being. Similar major international initiatives were taken in 2000. World Education Forum at Dakar and the UN Millennium conference at New York, fixed various targets and goals, named as MDGs. As a signatory country, Bangladesh is now committed to attain these targets by 2015. Currently primary education in Bangladesh is on target of achieving the second MDGs phase and it is a matter of concern Number of Students Enrolled in Primary Schools and Percentage of Boys and Girls *percentage of boys and girls students in primary schiools (1991-2009) Number of Students % of Students YearTotalBoysGirlsBoysGirls 199112,635,4196,910,0925,725,32754. 745. 3 199213,017,2677,048,5425,968,72554. 245. 8 199314,067,3327,525,8626,541,47053. 546. 5 199415,180,6808,048,1177,132,56353. 047. 0 199517,284,1579,094,4898,189,66852. 647. 4 199617,580,4169,219,3588,361,05852. 447. 6 199718,031,6739,364,8998,666,77451. 948. 1 199818,360,6429,576,9428,783,70052. 247. 8 199917,621,7319,065,0198,556,71251. 448. 6 200017,667,9859,032,6988,635,28751. 148. 9 200117,659,2208,989,7958,669,42551. 049. 0 200217,561,8288,841,6488,720,18050. 349. 7 200318,431,3209,358,7579,072,56350. 849. 2 200417,953,3009,046,4338,906,86750. 449. 6 200516,225,6588,091,2218,134,43749. 8750. 13 200616,385,8478,129,3148,256,53349. 650. 4 200716,312,9078,035,3538,277,55449. 350. 7 200816,001,6057,919,8378,081,76849. 4950. 51 200916,539,3638,241,0268,298,33749. 8350. 17 Statictis of primary schools in Bangladesh(1996-2009) YEARInstitution GPSEXPRNGPSCOMM* SATTHSAPSNGPSKGEb. Mad- rashaHMAPSNGOTotal 1996377105219683275920027593963143494992759-80818 19973771052195291962104212923472154582312850-77685 19983771053196582989282215823177169171732948-79803 199937709531955331072945123026321940640432531478840 200037677531925330613884122021262296371034379276809 2001376715319428326840951576197124773843357417078126 2002376715319428322548231576179224773443357430178363 2003376715319428326048231618167030886581820034586737 20043767154198143218-1283169937456723821444782868 20053767254196823027-135394622816768*832928980401 20063767254199993192-1314114026656726892033882020 20073767254201073186-131497322536726892022981434 20083767254200833263-157196629876744923340882981 20093767255200612991-95981927446744923323081508 GPS- Government Primary School, RNGPS- Registered Non Government Primary School, NGPS- Non Government Primary School, EXP- PTI attached Experimental School, KG- Kinder Garden, HSAPS- High School Attached Primary Schools, HMAPS- High Madrasa Attached Primary School, * SATT Sattilite Schools which are closed from 2004 . CHALLENGES †¢Quality of teachers : Teacher’s poor academic quality and low competency is a serious problem for student’s educational attainment. Rahman attempted to establish a profile of the primary school teachers by interviewing some 500 teachers. He found that most of the teachers have only the SSC/HSC examination in the third division (Rahman, 1986:32). This poor quality of teacher’s academic competencies results in ineffective teaching. †¢Fund : Lack of funding is a big problem. The government and donors try to invest more in education sector to achieve the goals of education for all. †¢Quality of education : Bangladesh has a significant progress in achieving some goals of education for all but it needs to focus on the quality of education and early childhood development. †¢Coaching centers : some coaching centers are very much expensive. It helps to decrease child’s creativity because students found readymade notes there and they don’t need to work for it. †¢Students politics : when students participate in politics, they can not concentrate their studies. They will very much busy with political activities rather than their study because they are given money to do this. †¢Lack of consistency: Dhaka, Jan 2 (BDNEWS) – Countries leading educationists Monday demanded cancellation of the proposed unified education, which was postponed earlier, and introduction of a genuine unified education based on equality, and scientific and secular thinking at secondary level. RECOMMENDATION 1. Inclusion of legal education in government’s policy priorities, and to undertake concrete steps to improve its quality. 2. Formation of a Council of Legal Education for overall control, monitoring and supervision of legal education in Bangladesh. The Council will exercise its functions in collaboration with the Bar Council and the University Grants Commission. Necessary law is to be enacted for the formation of the Council, which would also entail amendment of the Bangladesh Legal Practitioners and Bar Council Order 1972, in so far as it concerns legal education. 3. To form legal education committee in the University Grants Commission consisting of the representatives of the law schools, and with this end in view to make necessary amendments in the University Grants Commission Order, 1972 and the relevant rules. 4. Provision for additional vocational course up to one year for law graduates as prequalification for appearing at the bar examination. How this course would be designed and run would be determined by the proposed Council of Legal Education. 5. Rational combination of academic and vocational character of legal education to make sure law graduates acquire knowledge, skill and competency for legal practice as well as law related general services. It is necessary to provide for more practical methods of teaching law i. e. Socratic method, problem method, case study, moot court and mock trial, clinical legal education etc. 6. Promotion of inter-disciplinary approach to curriculum to help students better understand the societal problems. Subjects like national history, economics, political science, sociology, logic etc could be included in the law curriculum. 7. Inclusion of new law courses (subjects) in the curriculum to respond to the needs of modern economy, ICT and globalisation. Subjects such as corporate law, international economic law, e-commerce, intellectual property law, environmental law, medical jurisprudence need to be included. 8. To include in the curriculum separate courses on ADR, legal ethics, research, drafting and conveyancing. 9. Need for emphasising transnational aspects of law to include more subjects on public and private international law and comparative law. 10. To enhance human rights and gender sensibility of legal education. Separate papers on these issues are suggested to be included in the syllabus 11. Narrowing down the gap between college legal education and university legal education by including more subjects in college curriculum and extending its duration. 12. Introduction of clinical legal education which means learning law by providing legal services to the community. Students need to be involved in various ADR activities where they will be exposed to real life situations and get opportunities to apply their knowledge of law as well as be sensitised to the rights of the marginalised sections of the community. 13. Immediate need for massive reforms and overhauling of college legal education by — (a)extension of duration of courses from existing two years to three years with emphasis on practical courses in the final year; (b)introduction of admission tests; (c)limiting number of seats for admission; (d)mandatory appointment of full time teachers; (e)provision for government financial assistance; (f)provision for adequate infrastructural facilities like class-rooms, library, books, computers etc; (g)provision for effective supervision of the colleges. 14. Establishment of government sponsored model law college to set the norms and standards of modern legal education. 15. Evaluation and examination of students by problem oriented questions. 16. Introduction of basic legal education at SSC and HSC levels as a part of general legal awareness, and as a stage of prequalification for higher studies in law. Ministry of Education is to provide necessary directives and frame rules to incorporate fundamentals of law of the land in SSC and HSC curriculum. 17. To preserve the present bilingual character of medium of instruction for law with an emphasis on effective learning of English. 18. To provide for institutional accountability of teachers, and their evaluation by the students. Details of the procedures of accountability and evaluation would need to be worked out. 19. Provision for training of the teachers. 20. Besides legal profession of a lawyer and a judge, to create more diversified professional job opportunities for the law graduates in various government and non-government departments. One of the ways to do it is to create by competitive examination BCS cadre service(legal) for law graduates to perform law related works in various government and autonomous bodies. CONCLUSION Bangladeshs education system has deeply entrenched links to the English language over many centuries. This has made English the de facto second language. Whats more important though, English is the primary language of trade and commerce here, which makes Bangladesh a very attractive destination for software and IT services off shoring. And now the government also has been taking some steps for the betterment of the educational system of Bangladesh. People are also concerned now unlike the previous dates. The people and the young generations should come forward along with the government on this purpose. We should remember one thing that we need to change for the development.

Procurement Purchasing Supplier

Procurement Purchasing Supplier After having investigated briefly in general the concept of procurement and the emergence of the concept of procurement , it is imperative for us in this chapter to delve in detail the analysis of the concept of procurement , the various theories which have been predicated at the international level and their relevance for our study under investigation . We would also have to critically scrutinise how the different models of procurement effectiveness measurements can help us in our analysis to delve in greater detail the relevance of procurement from the perspective of SOM . It is important that we have to undertake a holistic approach in the investigation of procurement practices and procurement effectiveness in our literature Review chapter for this forms the foundation of our secondary research. Our primary research which would be delved in detail in the subsequent chapters would be further developed on the strong foundations of this chapter. In the final analysis we would be util ising in adequate measure the concepts from the secondary research as they develop in this chapter and couple it with our derivations from primary research to gain a greater in-depth understanding of procurement practices in Shell Oman and hypothesize relevant recommendations and remedial solutions for bringing about effective changes in the present operational systems at SOM Definition of Procurement Relevance : it is important for our study to understand clearly the meaning and exact phraseology behind procurement for the purposes of investigation of procurement practices in SOM . Since Procurement is an extremely broad concept which has applicability from strategic , operations and tactical level , various definitions would have to be looked into and strategically decipher their level of applicability for our purpose of investigation . Procurement, purchasing, and supplier management are all terms used extensively. They may mean the same or sometimes may have significant differences. Since the term procurement covers many areas, from operational to strategic levels, Knudsen (1999) has summarized the different terms, used for acquiring good and services in the following table. Level Term Meaning Strategic Supply Management To be aware of the strategic impact of procurement and fully exploit it by formulating a supply strategy Tactical Procurement To satisfy internal demands with external sources which adhere to objectives set at the strategic level Operational Purchasing The minimum activities required to obtain external products or services that result in invoice from an external source Timo et al (2005), argued in their document, the quantitative definition of purchasing is not accurate and suggest to a broader scope of purchasing, adding pensions, other personnel costs, financial expenses and increase in assets within the scope. They define Purchasing as: â€Å"Invoices or payments based on exchange of physical objects, services or rights†. There are two basic types of purchasing in the business world: (1) Purchasing for resale and (2) purchasing for consumption or conversion (Dobler and Burt, 1996). Purchasing for resale is performed primarily by merchants. Industrial buyers buy materials, services etc. for manufacturing companies, service business, institutions, utilities, and various government agencies. Other definitions of Procurement are as follows: Procurement is the acquisition of systems, goods or services at the best possible total cost of ownership, in the right quantity, at the right time, in the right place for the direct benefit or use of the governments, corporations, or individuals generally via, but not limited to a contract. (Project Management Body of Knowledge, 2000) Procurement is the process of acquiring goods, works and services, covering both acquisition from third parties and from in-house providers. The process spans the whole life from identification of need, through to the end of a service contract or the end of the useful life of an asset. It involves options appraisal and the critical â€Å"make or buy† decision which may result in the provision of services in-house in appropriate circumstances. (The Procurement process The Buyers Magazine, 2000). In the context of a procurement process, obtaining â€Å"best value for money† means choosing the bid that offers â€Å"the optimum combination of whole life cost and benefits to meet the customers requirement†.† (National Procurement Strategy for Local Government in England, 2003) The Importance of Procurement Relevance : The importance of procurement in the changing face of corporate scenario of today is all the more important as there is a greater strategic interface between the procurement department and the other key departments within functional global corporate entities . In this regard the study of importance of procurement as a terminology would help us in understanding and appreciating the strategic shift in focus of procurement operations from tactical to a crucial strategic level . This would help us in highlighting the importance of procurement practices in organisations such as SOM under investigation Many authors wrote about the importance of procurement function in todays organization and how it can impact the bottom line. Different terms are used in the literature, Procurement, Purchasing or Supply management but they all apply to the process of acquiring goods and services for the business, which account for a huge corporate expenditure. The following main objectives show how the procurement function can contribute to a companys competitiveness (Axelsson et al, 2005): †¢ Cost optimisation (e.g. lower transaction costs and overhead costs) †¢ Asset utilisation (e.g. outsourcing and inventory management) †¢ Value creation (e.g. process/products development and quality improvement) According to Procurement strategy council, the procurement function today is viewed as an important component of a firms strategic arsenal, the modern purchasing department can reduce a firms operational expenditure through streamlined purchasing and price reductions for goods and services. The article discuss that a smart purchasing can reduce costs 20% to 30%, freeing up funds to be used elsewhere. The realization that purchasing can impact bottom line saving has elevated procurements strategic importance. (Procurement Strategy Council, 2001) Improving the Bottom Line Reductions in Procurement Costs Directly Affect Net Income Income Statement (in millions US$) Initial 3% Reduction in OR Revenues $1000$1000 Operating Resources (OR) $350 $339 Direct Materials$220$220 Wages, Salaries, Benefits$200$200 Depreciation$110 $110 Taxes $60$60 Net Income After Taxes $60$71 Reducing purchasing costs translates directly into bottom line savings. By lowering OR costs by $11 million, a firm directly raises its after tax income by the same amount. Source: (Procurement Strategy Council, 2001) Further, van Weele describes in his book, ways that procurement can contribute to the companys competitiveness. They play a critical role in quality assurance by working with suppliers to ensure higher quality standards regarding incoming goods and services. Procurement can also effect how quickly a firm reacts to changes in demand, through increased involvement in supply chain coordination and inventory management. In addition, by reducing purchasing costs the function can contribute to substantial price reductions of the end product. The leverage effect of purchasing can be considerable depending on the purchasing-to-sales ratio and the capital turnover ratio. (van Weele, 2005) Nowadays companies outsource most of their activities, increasing their reliance on the competitiveness of their suppliers. . (J. Hamilton, 2002). As a support case study, the case of Toyota cars (Japan), can be highlighted, wherein 83% of all activities are outsourced form various global suppliers. (Toyota, 2000). This makes the process of procurement quintessential and in fact the most important, in todays business world. If a company procures the right quality products, at the right price, with the right delivery schedule, only then and then alone can it remain productive and competitive in todays environment (Ian McMillan, 2005) This shows that if the procurement process is not right, then the company product, the company image, competitiveness et al would surely take a dive. According to van Weele, â€Å"This is why management has become increasingly aware of the purchasing function†. Once regarded as a reactive activity, the procurement and sourcing process at leading firms is at the forefront of responding to and creating change. (Procurement Strategy Council, 2001) Within the past year, several new research initiatives from different relevant perspectives prove persuasively that excellence in procurement can lead to a host of proven, quantifiable business benefits (Procurement Strategy council, 2001). Lower operating costs, higher ROI, and a direct contribution to the bottom line are among the principal advantages that have been documented. The increased impact from purchasing on corporate performance is supported by a study recently conducted by IBM Business Consulting Services. In the study, called The 2005 Chief Procurement Survey, purchasing managers and other people in leading positions at companies around the world were interviewed concerning the current and future role of purchasing. Many reasons to the increased importance are pointed out, for example the growth in outsourcing, corporate restructuring and increased supplier value adding and risk. (The 2005 Chief Procurement Survey, 2005) Another study, conducted by business consultancy Archstone Consulting, found that nearly 90 percent of participants agreed that procurement plays a strategic role in the competitiveness of their organization, but needs to be further elevated in the organizational hierarchy to be truly effective. (Supply and Demand Chain Executives, 2004) The best-practice companies truly understand the power of procurement, says Pierre Mitchell, a director at The Hackett Group, which recently concluded an in-depth research into the procurement practices of more than 300 companies, found that world-class organizations generate 133 percent greater return on their investment in procurement than the average companies. The bottom line is that world-class companies continue to take a very different view of procurement, looking at it as an investment rather than as a cost center, says Mitchell. This is how they generate the millions of dollars in additional savings that other companies dont see. (Quinn, 2005) Ready or not, procurement is moving to center stage, with top billing on the corporate agenda. At companies around the world, CEOs and boards are counting on procurement initiatives to keep their businesses favourable positioned in todays intensely competitive marketplace. (The Global CPO Survey, 2005) To understand the new found omnipotence of the procurement process in organisational hierarchy, it is imperative to understand the stages of development of the process, right from its inception (Quinn, 2005). Historical Development Relevance : The historical development of procurement would help us to analyse the changing face and role of global procurement practices and understand critically how over the years the concept of procurement has begun to occupy the one of the centre stages for corporate performance . As would be revealed in this section we would find that procurement can no longer be visualised as an isolated entity but has to be strongly viewed as an inherent and integral part of the process of company operations. The historical development of procurement would add on a chronological dimension to understand the growing importance of procurement over the past decades . In the early 1970s, Ansoff, opined that the purchasing process played a passive role in the business organization and did not have any strategic role. (Ellram and Carr, 1994). The 1973-74 oil crisis and related raw materials shortages drew significant attention to the importance of purchasing. However, top management and purchasing professionals, did not react to enhance the role of purchasing in corporate strategy until when Porter came with his famous five force model that shape the competitive nature of industry, identified buyers and suppliers as two of the five critical forces. Thus, the strategic importance of the supplier and the firm as a buying entity began receiving recognition in the mainstream strategy literature. (Ellram and Carr, 1994). Since then 1980s the attitude toward procurement was changes and evolving to a more strategic level. According to the procurement strategy council article, the procurements movement from a tactical to a more strategic role in corporate operations is predicated on a broader shift in corporate strategy. Before World War II, purchasing departments accounted for barely 20% of corporate expenditures. Today, purchasing departments are responsible for 50% to 70% of corporate expenditures. This explanation is supported by Monczka et al. First, that the role of purchasing is presently being reshaped in order to fit the modern economy. This is related to the increasing globalisation, technology development and changing consumer demands. Another conclusion, according to Monczka et al, is that purchasing must continue its integration with customers, information systems, operations etc. (Monczka et al, 2000) The following table shows a compilation of strategic and operation tasks carried out in the procurement function. Strategic Procurement Identify necessary capabilities to match the customers needs regarding flexibility, innovation, agility, quality, responsiveness, cost levels and price levels Assess ones own capabilities (Knowledge, technology, capacity, competence, long term importance, total cost) Assess supplier capabilities (knowledge, technology, capacity, competency, long term imprtance, total cost, type of market, localisation, and substitutability) Model cost drives for items purchased Model Single/ Multiple sourcing effect on total cost Model how supplier relationship affect total cost (cost benefit of engaging in a close supplier relationship) For close supplier relationships share information and knowledge and make relation-specific investments Procurement Process Identify needs Conduct market analysis Send out and expedite RFx Do Background review Negotiate contracts and select suppliers Purchase order fulfilment Monitor supplier performance Internal Tasks Analyse corporate spending Parts bundling Aggregated corporate expenditures Develop relationships with internal customers Reduce maverick buying and promote compliance Disseminating procurement relation information External Tasks Scan for innovations Monitor, disseminate and stimulate Develop new sources Foster external capabilities Source Strategic Procurement Council, 2001. Value Improvement (Value Based Procurement The Organisational Quintessential) Relevance : It is important for us to understand the concept behind value improvements or value based procurement . The fact that tangible and intangible values could be quantified to procurement products and services makes the study of procurement systems all the more interesting for definitive mathematical extrapolation of the relevant results. Value systems and the ability to attribute value systems makes the procurement operational systems multidimensional and unique . Furthermore this is a system which could be aptly applied for effecting improvements in procurement systems for SOM, therefore a thorough investigation of the relevant concept is deemed important for our investigation . To be successful in business, we need to satisfy our customer by providing them with something they perceive as value. Since we are dealing with internal customers and suppliers, the concept of value becomes vital, which is directly linked to customer satisfaction. High customer satisfaction means their needs are met at high level. The customers will be satisfied if the product or service provides them with value. The term ‘value is used in every day business language however it is often misused and misunderstood. The concept of value has many definitions (Zeithaml, 1988; Anderson et al., 1993; Monroe, 1990; Gale, 1994; Woodruff, 1997) but generally they are not distinct. Common themes throughout these definitions are that (Dumond, 2000): Customer value is linked to the use of a product or service, thereby removing it from personal values; Customer value is perceived by the customers rather than objectively determined by the seller; and Customer value typically involves a trade-off between what the customer receives (e.g. quality, benefits, worth) and what he or she gives up to acquire and use a product or service (e.g. price, sacrifices). The concept of value is important for this study since our purpose is to illustrate value improvement initiatives to enhance the current procurement system with Shell Oman Marketing. According to Hill (2005), value can be classified under two headings: Use Value: The properties and qualities that accomplish the function of service or product. Esteem value: the properties, features or attractiveness that causes people to want to own or use it. Value, therefore, consists of a combination of use and esteem properties related to the cost of providing them. However, the measure of value added is directly linked to customer satisfaction. The measurement of procurement activities based on traditional efficiency report, and short terms savings doesnt support value base procurement. In order to reflect shift in the focus in procurement activities, new measurement techniques must be target at those activates which reflect value to the stakeholder. (Butler, 1995). An interesting study conducted by Dumond (1994) about creating a value base procurement. Based on his finding, many firms the operating environment does not support value-based purchasing. Senior management plays a critical role in developing an environment that will support and encourage value-based purchasing, the following steps are recommended: Focus individual purchasers on customers needs and identify the value-adding processes Develop a performance measurement system that emphasizes quality, process improvement, and customer satisfaction Integrate purchasing into the firms communication system (elevate if needed) Educate-not only individual purchasers but also their customers. 2.4Value Analysis Framework To analysis value in a system, it will be useful to the use the value analysis procedure, which is discussed in Terry Hill book of Operation Management (2005). The steps involved are: Select the service or product Gather information about it Analysis its function and its value for money Generate alternative ways to provide the same function through speculation and brain-storming Assess the worth of these ideas. Decide what is to be done Implement the decisions Evaluate the result EFQM Excellence Model Relevance : EFQM system analysis is extremely important for our investigation because EFQM model based on European models of operational management and Quality management help us through an exhaustive interface between strategic inputs and outputs to measure the effectiveness of procurement systems and delve on the findings to derive adequate strengths and measures for any procurement operational system . Since our investigation is essentially based on finding the points of improvement in SOM and capitalising on the strengths an understanding of the relevant model is highly warranted for our investigation and proposed study . Moreover since EFQM model visualise the operational mechanics of procurement system from multidimensional angles it is imperative for us to investigate the mechanics of operation of EFQM model in sufficient details for finding the relevant applicability for our study under investigation . The European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) is widely discussed in the literature and many organizations have applied it as a tool for assessing all aspects of an organisations activities and results. According to EFQM, the model is intended to promote continuous improvement and is an aid to effective benchmarking. Excellence Model was introduced at the beginning of 1992 as the framework for assessing organisations for the European Quality Award. Now it became the most widely used organisational framework in Europe and considered as the basis for the majority of national and regional Quality Awards. 2.4.2Benefit of EFQM The EFQM Excellence Model  is a  business model tool  that can be applied in many different ways: As a business model for being able to assess independently the competency of the organization by the organisation itself. As a measure to benchmark other organisational functioning and strategy. As an improvement tool for highlighting areas to improve. As a common denominator, standard measurement scale or a common vocabulary. As a structural guide for the management of any organisation. The fundamentals of the EFQM Excellence model are based on nine criterions which are cannot be prescribed and such are practical in nature and application. Five of these are Enablers and four are Results. What a particular organisation does, those factors qualify as ‘Enablers†. The achievement of an organisation qualifies as the Results Criterion. Results are caused by Enablers and Enablers are improved using feedback from Results. Excellent results with respect to Performance, Customers, People and Society are achieved through Leadership driving Policy and Strategy that is delivered through People, Partnerships and Resources, and Processes. (Procurement modelling-a discussion, Harvard Review Press, 1996) The Fundamental Concept of EFQM Excellence Model are: Results Orientation Every organisation should look for the outcome of â€Å"enablers† to delight customers. . Customer Focus Excellence is creating sustainable customer value. Leadership and Constancy of Purpose Excellence is visionary backed by inspirational leadership, with constancy of purpose. . Management by Processes and Facts Excellence is managing the organisation through a set of interdependent and interrelated systems, processes and facts. People Development and Involvement Excellence is maximising employee contribution through employee development and involvement. Continuous Learning, Innovation and Improvement Excellence is challenging the status quo and bringing change by learning and innovation. Partnership Development Excellence is developing and maintaining value-adding partnerships. Corporate Social Responsibility Excellence is exceeding the minimum regulatory framework in which the organisation operates and to strive to understand and respond to the expectati ons of their stakeholders in society (Harvard Review Press, 1996) 2.5 Procurement Value Improvement Framework (The Shell Oman perspective) The structure of literature is in line with the value analysis framework. First, we identified the service we want to investigate, which procurement activities in Shell Oman Marketing. Secondly, we provided information about the procurement function in Shell Oman and its structure. Thirdly, we use Soft System Methodology (SSM), which is strong in analyzing a holistic situation and capture qualitative data. The SSM will only be used to develop understanding of the challenges exist in the current system. Unstructured Interview is strong in determine many qualities aspect which will be useful in revealing out issues and problems that other method of research can meet this object effectively. Therefore, to get different perception, it will be useful to carry out a survey through an interview with five key internal business stakeholders to analysis the strength and weakness of current contract and procurement activities. Fourthly, we dig in the literature and journals to search for ways o f adding value improvement to procurement function. Plus, interviews with two large companies in similar field to identifying the industry best practice in procurement function. Fifthly, an analysis of all the procurement best practices generated from above stage, which will be discussed in chapter 4 in detail. Sixthly, in chapter 5, based on the analysis, we will recommend the way forward. Unfortunately, this research will be limited at the recommendation stage and will not have the opportunity to implement and evaluation the result. 2.6The Purchasing Maturity (Organisational Stratagem) We can observe that the purchasing role in providing added value has evolved and has been modified along with the importance and the place taken by purchasing in organizations. In figure 3 the main values added by purchasing are related to each of the evolution stages towards purchasing maturity (van Weele, 1998). In the first stage the main value added by purchasing is by assuring the continuity of the supply. In the second stage the already purchased items have an increased importance in companys costing cost structure. The role of purchasing then left is to minimize material costs and improve /up the bottom line. Stage 3 would center on co-ordination between various departments .The main values added by purchasing are greater compliance with pre-negotiated contracts, uniform buying policies and systems and capturing the benefits from internal co-ordination. The next stage lays stress on use of inter-functional teams and the reduction pf the total systems costs satisfaction of the internal customer seems to be the main focus of purchasing then. The supply orientation stage envisages the selection of suppliers on strategic company guidelines, requirements, long-term relationships design, supplier network management and early involvement in the new product development process. In the final s tage the main goal is to design the most effective and efficient value chain possible to serve the end customer. This last stage is characterized by an extensive use of cross- functional supplier development teams and a close collaboration on advance technology with suppliers. (Telgen Sitar, 2001) 2.7 Categories of Value Added Procurement The literature review highlights five main categories of value added procurement which are representative and important for every organization: Better contracts Improved purchasing efficiency Customer satisfaction (improved quality and service) Closer and more cooperative relationships with suppliers Reduced costs, improved quality and increased time to market resulting from an early involvement of the purchasing department in the new product development process (NPD). The first four categories of values added are based on Leenders and Schiele (1999). Basically, the researcher took one aspect from each of the above categories of value added. The role of the purchasing department should be considered from all possible angles and viewpoints. There is an increasing contribution of the purchasing department in the new process development in todays organisations, with specific and special interests in -the contribution of the purchasing department in the areas of quality, cost and time to market resulting from an early involvement of the purchasing department in the NPD process. The Resource Based View of Procurement Relevance : The analysis of this model for procurement is important for adding diversity to our investigation of procurement systems and their mechanics . Resource based view of procurement is one of the important views for procurement practices from the global perspective especially from the point of view of competing firms in highly dense and competitive markets , where because of oligopoly of procurement practising firms each firm would have to build a set of unique identifiable resources to capitalise on a