Malcolm X and Black Nationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Malcolm X and Black Nationalism - Essay Example Due to such mistreatment of blacks they became tired and needed a forum to express their challenges. This led to the formation of civil right movement that promoted equal education and legal rights. Despite the two being vocal in the Black Nationalism in USA, their views differed (Cone et al, 2003). MLK comes from a very affluent family and Malcolm X from a poor background, therefore the basis of argument are different in that MLX called for a Non –violent resistance for example the triumph of the Montgomery bus (1955) in Alabama whereas Malcolm X is viewed to be violent ‘By all means† Most blacks, like such as Malcolm X, MLK methods were useless and lacked basis. But, King continually emphasized in nonviolent approach. He refuses to inflict physical harm on others. According to Dr. King, he argues that nonviolence methods resist evil, and it refuses to commit evil. He continues by saying that the enemy is a person and must be treated fairly; one should not destroy the rival but rather seeks to make the foe a friend. Even if using violence fails to convert the foe to a friend; it removes hatred from the hearts of those who are committed to it.† Violence was very impractical and immoral (Waldschmidt, et, al, 2003) According to Malcolm X, he did not favor integrations of white and blacks; he even continues to warn the blacks of integrating with ‘sinking ship’. Therefore, he emphasized on black separatism and not integration. Dr. King advocated for unity and peaceful coexistence among individual of different races (Cone et al, 2003) . The different in ideas originate from the environment that one was bought in. King was brought up in a religious environment and their parents who loved unity. Unlike Malcolm X, the ideas originated from the racial hate that killed his father who influenced him in Black Nationalism activism. Moreover, he was subjected to white violence and racism, and this made him drop out of school

Issues in Homeland Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Issues in Homeland Security - Essay Example Based on the official report of DHS and the research of David Inserra and Steven P. Bucci, border and aviation security, illegal immigration issue, coast-guard revival, ineffective program management and departmental failure, preventing violent domestic extremism, cyber security, and insufficient research and development are the major issues, which are ranked according to the highest priority issues in the homeland security (Webster, 2008, p. 6-15; Bucci & Inserra, 2013). The DHS was formed after the attacks of 9/11 with the main objective of the country’s border and aviation security (Webster, 2008, p. 3). The border and aviation security is crucial for the integrity of the country. Considering the ongoing threat of international and domestic terrorism, enhancement in border and aviation security is the topmost concern for the DHS. Illegal immigration is another issue that is affecting the social and economical stability in the US. Various researches have regularly highlighted the direct link between growing crime rates and increasing number of illegal immigrants in the country (Bucci & Inserra, 2013). Hence, it is second most concerning issues which need to be tackled by implementing policies for current immigration laws enforcement. The necessity of coastguard revival is another priority of the DHS. According to the reports, the rate of coastguard operations has increased due to the growing threats to the US marine security and the necessit y of protecting the state’s interests in adverse conditions, such as in the hurricanes and Arctic (Bucci & Inserra, 2013). Another significant issue in the DHS is its failure to effectively utilize allocated funds and flaws in management system. It is reported that often crucial homeland security funds are invested in low-valued or unnecessary projects such as, zombie apocalypse simulation in California, or underwater robotic devices in Columbus

Fast food Essay Example for Free

Fast food Essay 1 Departm ent of Clinical Biochem istry , Gentofte Hospital Univ ersity of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denm ark of Hum an Nutrition, Centre for Adv anced Food Studies, Faculty of Life Sciences, Univ ersity of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denm ark 2 Departm ent Correspondence: A Astrup, Departm ent of Hum an Nutrition, RVA Univ ersity , 1 9 58 Frederiksberg C, Denm ark. Em ail: ast @kvl. dk Abstract. Although nutrition experts might be able to navigate the menus of fast-food restaurant chains, and based on the nutritional information, compose apparently healthy meals, there are still many reasons why frequent fast-food consumption at most chains is unhealthy and contributes to weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. Fast food generally has a high-energy density, which, together with large portion sizes, induces over consumption of calories. In addition, we have found it to be a myth that the typical fast-food meal is the same worldwide. Chemical analyses of 74 samples of fast-food menus consisting of French fries and fried chicken (nuggets/hot wings) bought in McDonalds and KFC outlets in 35 countries in 2005–2006 showed that the total fat content of the same menu varies from 41 to 65 g at McDonalds and from 42 to 74 g at KFC. In addition, fast food from major chains in most countries still contains unacceptably high levels of industrially produced trans-fatty acids (IP-TFA). IP-TFA have powerful biological effects and may contribute to increased weight gain, abdominal obesity, type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. The food quality and portion size need to be improved before it is safe to eat frequently at most fast-food chains. Key words: trans-fat t y acids, fast food, energy densit y Introduction In the documentary film Super Size Me, the character Mr Spurlock ate McDonalds food three times a day for 30 days and gained 11 kg. It is quite obvious that one can purposely overeat on almost any diet, but the film raises the question of whether fast food poses a special health risk. To what extent this behaviour is a realistic trait in the general population, and to what extent fast-food consumption contributes to obesity and other morbidities such as type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease, is still debatable. Before drawing any conclusion as to whether there are causal links between intake of fast foods and disease, ideally randomised trials should be conducted to provide robust evidence on this issue. However, it is highly unlikely that such trials comparing frequent and infrequent fast-food consumption will ever be carried out. We therefore have to rely on observational epidemiology and on mechanistic studies. www. nature. com/ijo/journal/v31/n6/full/0803616a. html 1/5 1/3/14 International Journal of Obesity Fast food: unfriendly and unhealthy Epidemiological studies A number of observational studies have assessed the association between frequent fast-food intake and weight gain. The American population study Cardia suggests that frequent fastfood consumption is positively associated with weight gain and risk of insulin resistance over 15 years. Individuals who had meals at fast-food restaurants more than two times a week gained 4. 5 kg more weight and had a 104% greater increase in insulin resistance, at both baseline and follow-up, than individuals who ate less than one fast-food meal per week. 1 This study was the first long-term project to find that people who frequently expose themselves to fast foods are at increased risk of weight gain over time and of developing type 2 diabetes. The study had several limitations such as the population size of only 3000 individuals and the fact that self-reported information about diet, physical activity and other lifestyle factors has inherent measurement errors. These factors, however, would normally tend to underestimate the strength of the identified associations. Other observational studies have to some extent supported the existence of a causal link. However, observational studies cannot prove that the association between fast-food consumption and weight gain is causal. It remains possible that frequent fast-food consumption is simply a marker for a generally unhealthy lifestyle (e. g. , less restrained eating behaviour, fatty and sweet food preferences, and a sedentary lifestyle), factors which are the real culprits in weight gain and in the increased risk of diabetes. Although every effort is made to adjust for potential confounders, one cannot adjust for unmeasured or unmeasurable lifestyle factors. Mechanisms by which fast food can be obesogenic Portion size. Despite the above-mentioned limitations in epidemiological observational studies, most of us would accept that the link between intake of fast foods and weight gain is causal because there are several mechanisms whereby fast foods could produce weight gain. At least two important features of fast food could explain why fast food is fattening, namely, large portion sizes and high-energy density. It is well established that the bigger the portion size, the more we consume. 2 Portion sizes of burgers, fried potatoes, pizzas, and soft drinks at fast-food outlets have all increased 2–5-fold over the last 50 years. 3 Energy density In addition to large portion sizes, fast food is also characterised by high-energy density, that is high energy-content/food-weight ratio. The energy density of the entire menu at fast-food outlets is typically 1100 kJ/100 g. 4 This is 65% higher than the average British diet ( 670 kJ/100 g) and more than twice the energy density of recommended healthy diets ( 525 kJ/100 g). Humans have only a weak innate ability to recognise foods with high-energy density and to downregulate the bulk eaten to meet energy requirements appropriately. 4 Industrially produced trans fat. French fries and fried meat from fast-food outlets contain high amounts of industrially produced trans-fatty acids. Trans fats are fats in margarines, spreads, and frying oils, produced by industrial hardening of vegetable or marine oils, to make the product more stable and robust for handling and storage. The hardening results in the creation of a so-called trans double bonds in the fatty acids of the lipids, in contrast to the normally occurring cis double bonds. This increases the melting points of the fats, thereby increasing shelf-life. Trans-fatty www. nature.com/ijo/journal/v31/n6/full/0803616a. html 2/5 1/3/14 International Journal of Obesity Fast food: unfriendly and unhealthy acids are also found naturally in meat from ruminants and in dairy products, but not nearly to the same extent as in industrially produced trans fat (up to 5%, as compared to up to 60% in fats), and not of the same types as in IP-TFA. In a worldwide study of the content of IP-TFA in fast foods, biscuits, and snacks, we found contents of IP-TFA ranging up to 50% of the fat in the products, enabling consumers to ingest 36 g of IP-TFA in a single meal in the US. 5 A daily intake of 5 g trans fat, corresponding to 2 energy percent, is associated with an approximately 30% increase in CHD risk. 6 Observational studies have found that a high intake of IP-TFA is stronger associated to the risk of weight gain and gain in abdominal fatness than to the intake of other fat sources. 7 Although unaccounted residual confounding cannot be ruled out, other sources of research support that the relationship is causal. First, IP-TFA serves as ligands for the PPAR- system and can exert a biological effect that promotes abdominal obesity. 6 Second, a recently reported long-term randomised trial in monkeys delivers robust evidence that IP-TFA induces weight gain and abdominal obesity. Kavanagh et al. 8 reported their findings at the 66th ADA meeting in Washington, D. C. For over 6 years monkeys were fed two different isocaloric, western-style diets that contained either 8% of their calories from trans fat or the same amount of fat calories as cis-monounsaturated fat. After 6 years, the IP-TFA fed monkeys had gained 7. 2% in body weight, compared to a 1. 8% increase in body weight in monkeys fed with cis-monounsaturated fats. CT scans showed that the monkeys on the trans-fat diet had deposited 30% more abdominal fat than the monkeys on the cismonounsaturated fat diet. Taken together these studies suggest that IP-TFA is obesity promoting, and that they particularly facilitate the deposition of the harmful abdominal fat associated with CHD. These findings can contribute to explaining why high intakes of IP-TFA may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. 9 Fat content in fast-food menus To select more healthy choices at the fast-food restaurants, nutritional labelling must be both available and accurate. While most chains provide nutritional information about total calories, calories from macronutrients, and fibre content of their products, we do not think that the average consumer who eats at a fast-food chain has the time or ability to make a reasonable estimate of health consequences of such meals or their contribution to the days caloric intake. The results of our analyses of total fat and trans fat in 74 French fries and fried chicken (nuggets/hot wings) samples bought in McDonalds and KFC outlets in 35 countries during 2005–2006 are given in Figure 1. The figures represent the total fat and trans fat content in 160 g of chicken meat and 171 g of French fries, corresponding to a large serving at an American McDonalds outlet. In these meals the total fat content varies from 41 to 65 g at McDonalds and from 42 to 74 g at KFC; the trans fat content varies from 0. 3 to 10. 2 and 0. 3 to 24 g, respectively. The differences in total fat content can – at least in part – be due to local taste preferences, but this is not the case for trans fat, which does not add a special flavour to the food. The results show that the same product, by the same provider, can vary in fat calorie content by more than 40%, and in trans fat content by several orders of magnitude. This demonstrates that the same product, unknown to the consumer, can vary substantially in its compliance with recommendations for healthy food. Figure 1. The entire length of the bar (both colours included) indicates the am ounts of total fat in a large fast-food m eal consisting of 1 7 1 g French fries and 1 6 0 g chicken nuggets. The darker colour indicates the am ounts of industrially produced trans fat. The v alues in parenthesis are the am ounts of trans fat as a percentage of total fat. www. nature. com/ijo/journal/v31/n6/full/0803616a. html 3/5 1/3/14 International Journal of Obesity Fast food: unfriendly and unhealthy Full figure and legend (305K) Conclusions Fast-food restaurant chains may argue that the evidence linking their products to the supersizing of their customers is too weak. But should not the customer be given the benefit of the doubt? Appropriate actions would include reducing portions to normal sizes, eliminating industrially produced trans fat, and selling burgers of lean meat, whole grain bread/buns, fatreduced mayonnaise, more vegetables, lower-fat fried potatoes, reduced-sugar soft drinks, etc. Moreover, reliable nutritional information should be given by the chains, which requires better standardisation of the foods used. 10 Although these measures may raise prices, such changes in fast-food meals would have no adverse health effects but quite the opposite! References 1. Pereira MA, Kartashov AI, Ebbeling CB, Van Horn L, Slattery ML, Jacobs Jr DR et al. Fast-food habits, weight gain, and insulin resistance (the CARDIA study): 15-year prospective analysis. Lancet 2005; 365: 36–42. | Article | PubMed | ISI | 2. Diliberti N, Bordi PL, Conklin MT, Roe LS, Rolls BJ. Increased portion size leads to increased energy intake in a restaurant meal. Obes Res 2004; 12: 562– 568. | PubMed | 3. Young LR, Nestle M. Expanding portion sizes in the US marketplace: implications for nutrition counseling. J Am Diet Assoc 2003; 103: 231–234. | Article | PubMed | ISI | 4. Prentice AM, Jebb SA. Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible mechanistic link. Obes Rev 2003; 4: 187–194. | Article | PubMed | ChemPort | 5. Stender S, Dyerberg J, Bysted A, Leth T, Astrup A. A trans world journey. Atheroscl Suppl 2006; 7: 47–52. | Article | 6. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1601– 1613. | Article | PubMed | ChemPort | 7. Koh-Banerjee P, Chu NF, Spiegelman D, Rosner B, Colditz G, Willett W et al. Prospective study of the association of changes in dietary intake, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking with 9-y gain in waist circumference among 16 587 US men. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78: 719–727. | PubMed | ISI | ChemPort | 8. Kavanagh K, Jones K, Sawyer J, Kelly K, Wagner JD, Rudel LL. Trans fat diet induces insulin resistance in monkeys. Diabetes Care 2006. Proceedings of 66th Scientific Sessions of the American Diabetes Association: Abstract 328-OR. www. nature. com/ijo/journal/v31/n6/full/0803616a. html 4/5 1/3/14 International Journal of Obesity Fast food: unfriendly and unhealthy 9. Salmeron J, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73: 1019– 1026. | PubMed | ChemPort | 10. Astrup A. Super-sized and diabetic by frequent fast-food consumption? Lancet 2005; 365: 4–5. | Article | PubMed | Acknowledgements SS and JD declare no conflict of interest. AA is medical advisor for Weight Watchers, and is member of several advisory boards for food producers. The Department of Human Nutrition receives/has received research funding from over 50 Danish and international food companies. Otherwise, I declare no conflict of interest. International Journal of Obesity This journal is a m em ber of and subscribes to the principles of the Commit t ee on Publicat ion Et hics. ISSN 03 07 -056 5 EISSN 1 4 7 6 -54 9 7 About NPG Privacy policy Nat urejobs Cont act NPG Accessibilit y st at ement Use of cookies Legal not ice Nat ure Asia Nat ure Educat ion Help Terms RSS web feeds Search: go  © 2 0 1 4 Na t u r e Pu blish in g Gr ou p, a div ision of Ma cm illa n Pu blish er s Lim it ed. A ll Rig h t s Reser v ed. pa r t n er of A GORA , HINA RI, OA RE, INA SP, ORCID, Cr ossRef a n d COUNT ER www. nature. com/ijo/journal/v31/n6/full/0803616a. html 5/5.

Psychological research studies

Psychological research studies It was first believed, according to the empiricists view (e.g. Locke, 1939) that a newborn infants ability to perceive, developed solely through a process of learning via experience. These pinnacle underestimates could have existed due to the extremely difficult nature of assessing what one could consider inaccessible to direct measurements. Contemporary knowledge in this domain has proliferated markedly due to the development of inventive techniques used to measure infants perceptual abilities. These perceptual abilities are considered to form the basis for rapid learning and development (Mehler Dupoux, 1994) and therefore are considered not only fascinating, but of pronounced importance to the study of developmental psychology. This interest is reflected in the numerous methods (e.g. behavioural, psychophsiological, and methods that assess brain responses) applied to infer the abilities of infants to perceive. In the present paper, focus will be dedicated to exploring the various research methods and reference to psychological research studies will be made in order to place the various approaches into a relatable context. The preference method devised by Robert Frantz (1958) is a straightforward technique which involves presenting an infant with two or more stimuli simultaneously, and as the name implies, assessing which was attentionally or perceptually preferred (Houston-Price Nakai, 2004). Early research generally relied on an observer watching the infants face and measuring how long one of the stimuli was looked at; however, present-day research relies on objectively scoring video film of the infants face or recording eye fixation, thereby strengthening accuracy of results (Smith, Cowie Blades, 2007). A variation of this technique was used to evaluate infants responsiveness to pictorial depth cues, in which two objects were placed at equal distances away from the infant. A strong reaching preference was demonstrated under monocular viewing conditions for the object that seemed closer due to pictorial depth cues. As this effect ceased during binocular conditions it was deduced that infants percei ve distance from pictorial cues (Kavsek et al., 2009). Along with this illuminating realization, the preference method has enabled many other intriguing deductions regarding infants perceptual abilities. For example, infants prefer to fixate on emotionally significant (i.e. familiar) stimuli (Burnham Dodd, 1999) as well as visual stimuli that match auditory stimuli (Golinkoff et al., 1987). This matching effect was also investigated and verified by Jeffrey Pickens (1994) through the use of visual preference to one of two television monitors. This method therefore leads to two types of inference; whether discrimination occurred and the salience of the preferred stimuli to infants (Houston-Price Nakai, 2004). The most popular method for measuring infants perceptual abilities is the habituation method, which capitalizes on the simplest form of learning. This technique involves a system in which a repeated stimulus becomes so familiar that initially associated responses cease to occur (habituation). If a new stimulus is presented and can be distinguished from the previous, attention can be renewed (dishabituated) (Shaffer Kipp, 2007). This method is also referred to as the familiarization-novelty procedure as the infants terminated response indicates recognition of a previously experienced stimulus, whereas regained attention indicates a novel stimulus (Bertenthal Longo, 2002). As this method can be applied to a myriad of research questions, it has elicited numerous substantial discoveries. For example, evidence for perceptual colour categories in pre-linguistic infants was obtained through the classical experiment conducted by Bornstein, Kessen and Weisskopf (1976). After habituation to one stimuli (e.g. red1), more attention was focused onto a colour from what an adult would consider a different colour category (i.e. preferred yellow instead of red2), even though the wavelength of the two novel stimuli where equal (Franklin Davies, 2004). Mayo, Nawrot and Nawrot (2009) proved that dihabituation results (obtained through use of the initial stimulus with manipulated depth) can indicate that infants as young as 16 weeks of age may be sensitive to indisputable depth from motion parallax. Conditioning focuses on the postulation that infants will learn to carry out behaviours if they are reinforced, which allows infants control over their environment and reflects understanding of relationships within the world (Smith et al., 2007). For example, Bower (1965) conditioned infants to turn their heads to one side by rewarding them with an adult engaging them in a peek-a-boo game. Once this response was established, the infant only received the reward if the infant turned his/her head when a certain stimulus was present. Discrimination can thereby be detected and in this case, size constancy was observed, as conditioned responses were three times more probable to the same stimuli (i.e. a 30cm cube) regardless of fluctuating retinal image size than to different stimuli (i.e. a 90cm cube) . Kuhl (1983) found that infants are capable of categorizing speech sounds by adopting the conditioning method and using a battery operated toy as a visual reinforcer. High amplitude sucking takes advantage of the fact that infants have good motor control of their sucking behaviour and this fact can be used to determine discrimination as well as likes and dislikes of the infant in question (Werker, Shi, Desjardins, Pegg, Polka Patterson, 1998). The infant is given an adapted pacifier containing electrical circuitry, and once the infants baseline sucking rate is recorded, variations (i.e. harder or faster sucking) trip the circuit thereby activating the reward (e.g. tape recorder)(Shaffer Kipp, 2007). Siqueland and De Lucia (1969) used a projected light as a visual stimulus to condition infants sucking, with strength of sucking directly proportional to the brightness of the visual stimuli. They concluded that at 4 months this relationship could be learned. A habituation version of the high amplitude sucking procedure was used to determine that infants perceive speech in a categorized manner. This was evident by familiarization (habituation) to the first stimuli (e.g. /ba/), followed by an increased sucking rate (dishabituation) in response to a second, novel stimuli (e.g. /pa/), thereby indicating discrimination between the categories had occurred (Eimas et al., 1971). Unobservable responses can also be accessed through measuring evoked potentials and changes in heart rate. With regards to changes in heart rate, it is expected that if an infant is surprised or upset their heart rate will increase, decreasing when focusing or attending. These effects can thus be manipulated through the habituation method to determine discrimination (Smith et al., 2007). Evoked potentials are measured by use of electrodes placed in positions on the scalp that process the presented stimuli. If a stimuli is perceived, it is reflected by a pattern of brain waves (i.e. evoked potentials), with different stimuli producing different patterns of electrical activity (Shaffer Kipp, 2007). Discrimination can therefore be deduced. A study using evoked potentials proved that visual acuity and contrast sensitivity are poor in the neonate, but improve during the first year of life (Atkinson et al., 1974). There is no question regarding the tremendous impact of these experimental methods; however they are not without their limitations. The preference method is praised as it is easy to employ, has a wide scope of application and response demands are minimal, although results can be confounded by familiarization effects prior to the preference procedure (Houston-Price Nakai, 2004). Another issue appears if an infant fails to show preference between the stimuli, as it is unclear whether the infant failed to discriminate or if the stimuli where found equally interesting (Shaffer Kipp, 2007). These effects can to some extent be controlled for by the use of the habituation method, which exploits the familiarization effect. This is a well understood, versatile procedure which is suited to investigations across many age groups (Werker et al., 1998), although data of an individual infant cannot easily be examined and discrimination behaviour is therefore only described with reference to a gro up (Werker Lalonde, 1988). Another probable inadequacy of this method concerns the lack of motivation of infants to show discrimination from a familiar stimulus, due to novelty being the only reward (Werker et al., 1998). Conditioning methods can rectify these problems as they provide reward and are able to provide data on individual subjects and hence able to identify individual differences. This paradigm is also useful in studying developmental changes through implementing experiments at different ages (Werker et al., 1998). The high amplitude sucking method is advantageous as it can measure a newborns (only a few hours old) perceptual ability due to sucking being easily conditioned (Werker et al., 1998). Williams and Golenski (1979) identified the major limitation with this study being that there is often a high drop-out rate due to infants who are fussy or sleepy, which may result in skewed data. Neurological and autonomic understanding has undoubtedly developed from studies involving evoked potentials and heart rate fluctuations; although these studies do little in accessing what differences are significant to the individual infant. All the above discussed paradigms are beneficial in assessing infants perceptual abilities, each having both strengths and weaknesses. As the habituation-dishabituation method is the most popular method of assessing infants perceptual abilities, along with the fact that many methods may be considered a variation of this paradigm, one might be lead to the inference of its superiority. However, over the years the differences between the methods have diminished due to modern research methods encapsulating on positive aspects from the various paradigms (Houston-Price Nakai, 2004). Therefore, with regards to methods in assessing infants perceptual abilities, what seems of most importance is the link between the research question of interest and the appropriate method to answer that question. References: Atkinson, J., Braddick, O., Braddick, F. (1974). Acuity and contrast sensitivity of invant vision. Nature, 247, 403-404. Bornstein, M. H., Kessen, W., Weisskopf, S. (1976). Colour vision and hue categorization in young infants. Journal of experimental psychology: Human perception and performance, 1, 115-129. Bower, T.G.R. (1965). Stimulus variables determining space perception in infants. Science, 149, 88-9. Burnham, D., Dodd, B. (1999). Familiarity and novelty preferences in infants auditory-visual speech perception: problems, factors, and a solution. In C. Rovee-Collier, L. Lipsitt, H. Hayne (Ed.), Advances in Infancy Research, 12, (pp. 170-187). Ablex: Stamford. Eimas, P.D., Siqueland, E.R., Jusczyk, P., Vigorito, J. (1971). Speech perception in infants. Science, 171 (3968), 303-306. Franklin, A., Davies, I. R. L. (2004). New evidence for infant colour categories. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22, 347-377. Frantz, R. (1958). Pattern vision in young infants. The Psychological Record, 8, 43-47. Golinkoff, R., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Cauley, K., Gordon, L. (1987). The eyes have it: lexical and syntactic comprehension in a new paradigm. Journal of Child Language, 14, 23-45. Houstin-Price, C., Nakai, S. (2004). Theory and Method in Developmental Research: Distinguishing novelty and familiarity effects in infant preference procedures. Infant and Child Development, 13, 341-348. Kavsek, M., Granrud, C. E., Yonas, A. (2009). Infants responsiveness to pictoral depth cues in preferential reaching studies: A meta-analysis. Infant behavior and development, 32, 245 -253. Kuhl, P.K. (1983). Perception of auditory equivalence classes for speech in early infancy. Infant behaviour and Development, 6 (2-3), 263-285. Locke, J. (1939). An essay concerning human understanding. In E. A. Burtt (Ed.), The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill. New York: Modern Library Longo, M. R., Bertenthal, B.I. (2006). Common coding of observation and execution of action in 9-month-old infants. Infancy, 10 (1), 43-59. Mehler, J., Dupoux, E. (1994). What infants know. The New Cognitive Science of Early Development. Oxford:Blackwell. Nawrot, E., Mayo, S. L., Nawrot, M. (2009). The development of depth perception from motion parallax in infancy. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 71 (1), 194-199. Pickens, J. (1994). Perception of Auditory-Visual Distance Relations by 5-month-old infants.Developmental Psychology, 30 (4), 537-544. Shaffer, D. R., Kipp, K. (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood Adolescence (8th ed.). Belmont, USA: Nelson Education Ltd. Siqueland, E. R., De Lucia, C. A. (1969). Visual reinforcement of non-nutritive sucking in human infants. Science, 165, 1144-1146. Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., Blades, M. (2003). Understanding Childrens Development (4th ed.). Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing. Werker, J. F., Lalonde, C. E. (1988). Cross language perception: initial capabilities and developmental change. Developmental psychology. 24 (5): 672 683. Werker, J.F., Shi, R., Desjardins, R., Pegg, J. E., Polka, L., Patterson, M. (1998). Three Methods for testing infant speech perception. In A. Slater (Ed.), Perceptual Development: Visual, Auditory and Speech perception in infancy (pp. 389-418). Hove, UK: Psychology Press Ltd. Williams, L., Golenski, J. (1979). Infant Behavioural State and Speech Sound Discrimination. Child Development, 50, 1243-1246.

Effects of trade barriers

Effects of trade barriers Chapter 1 Introduction Trade is an exchange of services and goods for other services and goods or for money, Trade ( 2010). The paper discusses about the effects of trade barriers on international trade, i.e. to identify one or more variables (inflation, transportation cost, tariff, remittances, population, GDP deflator and exchange rate) in the study that effect international trade the most. A trade barrier is a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts international trade (Trade barrier, 2010). The problem discussed is the effect of trade barriers on international trade. In order to address the problem, two hypotheses have been developed and tested. Each hypothesis explains the effect of variables as barrier to international trade. Secondary data of three years comprised on year 2005-2007, collected from the source World Trade Organization (WTO). The statistical tool applied to test the hypothesis is multi-variate regression model as there are more than one independent variable and one dependent variable. The independent variables identified in this paper are (Inflation, Exchange Rate, Remittances, GDP, Tariff, Population and Transportation Cost) the dependent variable are (Imports and Exports). The statistical result of the hypothesis testing can be seen in the following chapters. Inflation Generally inflation is defined as a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over time, where as most of the economist define inflation as a rise in the prices of some specific set of goods or services, it is important to understand that the rise in prices is for specific set of goods and services and it should be constant, as well as a rise in price of one good or service as compared to other does not mean an increase in inflation it should be increased for every product or service. Inflation is measured as the percentage rate of change of a price index (Haq Hussain, 2008). Measures of Inflation There are many measures of inflation each for different sector, Consumer Price Indices (CPI) CPI measures the price of goods and services purchased by a consumer (Haq Hussain, 2008). Cost-of-Living Indices (COLI) Are indices similar to the CPI which is often used to adjust fixed and contractual incomes (Haq Hussain, 2008). Producer Price Indices (PPIs) measures the prices acknowledged by producers. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, income, and taxes may cause the amount acknowledged by the producer to differ from what the buyer paid. Producer price inflation measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be passed on as consumer inflation, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity (Haq Hussain, 2008). Commodity Price Indices (CPI) measures the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the all in cost of an employee (Haq Hussain, 2008). GDP Deflator GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Haq Hussain, 2008). Capital Goods Price Index So far (CGPI) has not been established, where as several economists have recently pointed out the necessity of measuring capital goods inflation (inflation in the price of stocks, real estate, and other assets) separately. Indeed a given increase in the supply of money can lead to a rise in inflation (consumption goods inflation) and or to a rise in capital goods price inflation. The growth in money supply has remained fairly constant through since the 1970s however consumption goods price inflation has been reduced because most of the inflation has happened in the capital goods prices, Haq Hussain (2008), where as there are two common known measures widely reported in many countries, i.e. CPI and GDP Deflator. The above chart shows the trade of world developed countries in terms of exports and imports, the amount is in US billion dollars, the next chart is of inflation of the developed countries of the world, the purpose is to compare and analyze the countries inflation rate and trade in order to examine the impact caused by inflation on countries trade. As it can be seen that each country has different impact of inflation on its imports and exports, for instance Australia inflation rate was 2.30% in year 2007 where as its exports were 142 billion dollars and its imports were 160 billion dollars, similarly for Canada its inflation rate was 2.10% and its exports were 431.1 billion dollars and its imports were 386.4 billion dollars, therefore if a comparison is made between these countries it can be seen that every country has a different impact of inflation on its trade, hence it can be said that the reason for this difference of change is the size of countrys economic and financial structure. Tariff A tariff is a tax forced on an imported or exported commodities. In general dialect, however, it has come to mean import duties charged at the time goods are imported (Parkin, 1996). According to Japans customs tariff law a tariff a tax based on the standard of assessment of prices or volume of imported goods (Tariff, 2010). Functions of Tariff There are three major functions of tariffs: To serve as a basis of income; To protect domestic industries; and To remedy trade distortions (corrective function) (Functions of Tariff, 2010). The Income Function The income function simply means that the income from tariffs provides governments with a source of tax revenue. In the past, the income function was indeed a major reason for applying tariffs, for instance Japan generates about 845 billion yen in tariff revenue per year, which represents approximately 1.9 percent of total tax revenue (Meti, 2010). Protection of Domestic Industries Tariffs are also used as a policy tool to protect domestic industries from competition of importing goods, as well as tariffs are also used as a source of protection of market access from foreign exporters (Meti, 2010). Remedy to Trade Distortions Corrective tariffs are used as a remedy for trade distortions caused by companies to injure domestic industry, for instance anti-dumping agreement is used to impose duties on companies exporting goods that are specifically banned and cause damage to domestic industry of importing country (Meti, 2010). Remittance Remittance can be defined as sums of money that a migrant worker sends back to his or her country of origin (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). Remittance plays a vital source of income for developing country economies, as well as millions of individual households, predominantly poor women and their children. Unlike aid or concealed investment flows, remittance reaches the poor directly, and the poor decide how the money is spent. Importantly, remittance services also offer a means for monetary institutions to increase their outreach and significance to poor clients (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). For instance the largest remitting countries in terms of volume are the United States with remittances amounting to $28.4 billion, Saudi Arabia with remittances amounting to $15.1 billion and Germany with remittances amounting to $8.2 billion (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). In the study, Ratha (2003), it was found that more than three-quarters of remittances go to lower mid-income and low income developing countries. India receives the largest volume of remittance mounting to $10 billion, then Mexico with $9.9 billion, followed by the Philippines with $6.4 billion (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). Exchange Rate The price of one countrys currency expressed in another countrys currency. In other words, the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another. For instance, the higher the exchange rate for one euro in terms of oneyen,the lower the relative value of the yen (Investopedia , 2010). Exchange Rate and Trade Exchange rate is one of the important factors in an open economy since it affects so many business, investment and strategic decisions. Various empirical studies have been conducted to assess the influence of exchange rate on trade balance, with the objective of providing valuable inputs to policy makers on the usefulness of exchange rate policy such as devaluation-based alteration policies (effected through nominal exchange rate) to balance a countrys foreign trade for instance, Greenwood (1984), Himarios (1989), Rose Yellen (1989) provided the evidence of relationship between exchange rate and trade balance. In a study, Oskooee (2001) stated that appreciation of exchange rate directly affects a country trade as it can be used as an effort to increase international competitiveness and help to improve its trade balance. On the other hand it was also reported in the study that depreciation of exchange rate increases exports by making exports fairly cheaper, and daunt imports by making imports fairly more expensive, thus improving trade balance(Liew, Lim, Hussain, 2000). Japan and ASEAN A study conducted using trade balance data from year 1986 to 1999 between Japan and 5 ASEAN countries to examine the impact of exchange rate on countries trade balance. It was found in the study that the role of exchange rate changes in initiating changes in the trade balances has been overstated. It is widely expected that the decrease of ASEAN-5 exchange rates with respect to Japanese yen would improve these economies trade balances with Japan during the sample period of study (Liew, Lim, Hussain, 2000). Gross Domestic Product Gross domestic product is the value of collective or total production of goods and services in a country during a given time period (Parkins, 1996). Measures of GDP There are two common measures of GDP namely: Expenditure Approach. Factor Income Approach. Expenditure Approach In expenditure approach the GDP is measured by adding consumption expenditure, investment, government purchase of goods and services and net exports (Parkins, 1996). Factor Income Approach In factor income approach the GDP is measured by adding all the incomes paid by the firms to household for the services of factor of production, for example compensation of employees, net interest, rental income, and profits paid for entrepreneurship (Parkins, 1996). Chapter 2 Literature Review Transportation Cost Europe A comparative study, Conlon (1981), was conducted in 1981 between Australia and Canada to investigate the role of transportation cost as a trade barrier in trade flow of both the countries. It was found in the study that in Australia nominal transport costs contribute over 40 per cent of the trade barrier in its trade flow, where as in Canada transport costs provide over 17 per cent of the total barriers. In the study by, Casas choi (1985), it was found that transportation cost being the trade barrier has two affects on the country economy 1) implicit tariff effect, 2) resource cost effect. The Implicit Cost Effect In the implicit cost effect, Casas choi (1985) an increase in transportation costs affects the trade flows by increasing the domestic comparative price of the imported goods. Resource Cost Effect In the resource cost effect, Casas choi (1985) an increase in transportation cost, shifts productive resources from traded goods to the transport sector, i.e. in case of increase in transportation cost, the resources used to produce goods domestically were allocated for payments of transportation bills due to which production of domestic goods suffered. United Kingdom Similarly an empirical study, Binkley Harrer (1981), conducted in the United Kingdom to examine the role of transportation cost as trade barrier, it was found that Transportation costs between countries pose a formidable barrier to trade, similar to other trade barriers such as tariffs. This study was further supported by the study of Sampson and Yeats in which it was concluded that transport costs to be a more significant trade barrier for United Kingdom exports than tariffs, (Sampson Yeats: Binkley: 1978 Harrer: 1981). Similarly another study conducted in the United Kingdom also concluded that transportation cost is more effective trade barrier as compared to tariffs (Sampson yeats, 1978: Binkley Harrer: 1981). United States A similar study by, Finger Yeats (1976), conducted in the United States gave the similar conclusion that that effective shield through international transportation costs is at least as high as that due to tariffs, Geraci Prewo (1977). In a study it was concluded by the author that progressive reduction in the transportation cost resulted in the growth of trade between United States and Europe, Shiue (2002). Similarly another study conducted in the United States also concluded that transportation cost is more effective trade barrier. Africa A study conducted in Africa to examine the effect of transportation cost on African trade, the results indicated that there is a very little trade flow within the Africa and the rest of the world, due to strict trade policies, for example according to, Collier (1995), Collier Gunning (1999), Limà £o and Venables (2001), There is a common belief that Africa trades too little both with itself and with the rest of the world. The poor performance is typically attributed to protectionist trade policies and high transport costs. Similarly another study concluded that the reason behind the low trade is the poor infrastructure and inappropriate transport policies (Amjadi Yeats 1995: Limà £o Venables, 2001). Australia A study conducted in Australia, Sampson Yeats (1977) to identify the trade barriers causing decline in Australian exports, it was found in the study that transportation cost is a major contributor to decline in export as compared to tariffs, in other words it can be said that 66 percent of the total Australian exports are decline due to transportation cost. China A study conducted in china by studying various trends in trade barriers, the purpose of the study was to identify trade barriers affecting Chinese exports, and it was found in the study that transportation cost is a major trade barrier as compared to tariffs and local markups (Li, 2007). Tanzania An empirical study, Kweka (2001) conducted for developing countries such as Tanzania it was found in the study that transportation cost as a trade barrier have two impacts on the economy: It reduces the export competitiveness, Kweka (2001), since the cost incurred by the producer and cost paid by the buyer is widens by the high transportation cost. In other words it can be said that due to the increase in transportation cost most of the export orders to developing countries such as Tanzania are declined. The second impact, Kweka (2001) on the economy of developing countries is a positive impact, due to high transportation cost the trade of locally produced goods increases, this is due to the fact that the gap between the prices of locally produce goods and imported goods become so wide that it becomes nearly impossible for the people of importing country to buy imported goods as a result 95 percent of the purchases are made off locally produce goods. Ultimately leading a growth in the overall economy. Tariff There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of tariff as a trade barrier, for instance in a study it has been found that tariff and capital controls lead to trade deformation. Where as on the other hand it has also been that found tariff barriers in the importing countries tend to have a negative, though insignificant, effect on exports of countries (T. Tamirisa, 1999). Another study examining the impact of tariff as barrier on trade found that tariff has a significant negative effect on mutual exports, in part because of significant trade cost, where as in presence of tariff barrier the impact on imports is comparatively weak (T. Tamirisa, 1999). One more study examining the impact of tariff as a barrier in trade found that tariff is one of the significant factor of mutual trade in-between countries, as compared to country size wealth, exchange and capital controls, while tariff rate significantly reduce export of developing and transition economy (T. Tamirisa, 1999). A study conducted to examine the relationship between trade barriers and trade flow. The study identified number of barriers such as exchange control, tariff, NTBs, it has been found that tariff is one of the major trade barrier as compared to exchange control and NTBs. The study also concluded that tariff with other barriers of trade tend to reduce the volume of trade, as well as tariff alone have a depressing impact on the mutual trade of countries (Lee Swagel, 1997). The study also provided the evidence that country having bi-lateral trade is affected by tariff charges as a result it does not only have a strong negative effect imports but it acts as a substantial barrier to export also. Final study concluded that tariff act as a barrier to both imports and exports of a country (Lee Swagel, 1997). Another study conducted in year 1993 by lee to examine the distortion caused by tariff in international trade found that tariffs charges lower the long-run growth rates more significantly in a country that needs to import more under a free trade regime. As well as government intervention in terms of imposing a tariff on the imports of foreign goods leads to the increase in price paid by the domestic purchaser i.e. (1 + 7) times the price received by foreign exporters (lee, 1993). Therefore it can be said that, tariff has two effects on the economy, namely the deformation of resource distribution and the transfer of income, distortion effect of tariffs always decrease the steady-state levels of the capital stock, output, and consumption. Where as transfer of income help to retain the income earned through exports within the country, in presence of tariff where as in absence of tariff same income earned through export is used to settle import bills. On the other hand the study also concluded that when the tariff rates are high, the productivity of public input diminishes; thus, higher tariffs always lead to lower growth rates (lee, 1993). Empirical studies have found that tariff liberalization would transfer trade from the rich to the poor and from the local to the global. It has been estimated that the elimination of tariffs would create more trade for poor countries than for richer countries. They also imply that tariff elimination would divert trade away from continental preferential trading areas (lai zhu, 2004). The study provided the evidence that tariffs, and distance-related barriers and production costs are important factors affecting bilateral trade flow, where as tariff being the major element affecting the trade flow (lai zhu, 2004). For instance the trade among OECD countries is free form tariff charges where as non OECD countries have the highest tariff charges. As a result, the impact of tariffs on trade within OECD countries is likely less than 3.7% whereas the impact of tariffs on trade among non-OECD countries likely exceeds 3.7% (lai zhu, 2004). Population There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of population on trade. These studies discussed various questions regarding the benefits of openness of trade between countries for instance, who gains from an opening of the borders between two neighboring countries? Will any country lose as borders are opened? Is it the small country or the large country that benefits most? (Shachmurove Spiegel, 2004) It is general perception that countries with large populations having no trade tend to have larger profits at the expense of consumers i.e. since there is no foreign producer in the country all the profits earned through production is solely taken by the country it self in simple words it can be said monopoly. Where as if the same country having trade with other countries or foreign producers are trading in the country tends to reduce its profits, as part of the profit is taken by foreign exporter. On the other hand keeping the same scenario for a country with small population tend to have lower profits in the absence of trade and it will further see a decline in its profits with the presence of foreign producer (Shachmurove Spiegel, 2004). There are number of studies conducted that provided the evidence that countries having population aging problems have direct impact on the country trade, for instance a study by, Kenc Sayan (2001), showed that changes in age composition of population are likely to affect saving and expenditure patterns, the resulting changes in composition of demand are expected to affect comparative prices between expenditure and investment goods. On the supply side, the decline in labor supply and the slow down in capital formation associated with population aging had cause changes in capital-labor ratios. As a result it alters relative factor prices and leads to second-round effects on resource allocation. Furthermore, since the changes in the relative capital intensities across traded and non-traded sectors affect real exchange rates and trade patterns, they are expected to create additional effects on partner country economies as well (Sayan Uyar, 2002). On the other hand if the countries experiencing population aging are large in the international trade, where as their partners are small and have not yet faced a population aging problem themselves. In other words, commodities and capital traded at the terms set by large economies may make these small countries vulnerable to the effects of population aging even if they have relatively young populations (Sayan Uyar, 2002). Gross Domestic Product (GDP) There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of gross domestic product (GDP) on trade (imports exports) of a country, for instance a study conducted using gravity equation to examine the impact of gdp on exports of a country, the study classified the sample into three categories a) homogeneous goods, b) differentiated goods, and c) an in-between category (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). It found in the study that if a trade of one country with another move from homogeneous goods to differentiated goods, then the stretch of exports with respect to GDP rises considerably (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). The finding of the study is empirically strong and significant both economically and statistically, as well as the study also stated that the GDP of the exporting country is found to be a powerful illustrative variable in the comparative strength of bilateral trade relations (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). Another study conducted in India to examine the impact of various economic variables such as (distance, GDP, population, tariff, and exchange rate) on Indian trade flows. Previous studies have also been conducted using gravity model to examine the impact of economic variables on trade flows, it was reported in the previous studies that distance has a negative and significant impact on trade where as GDP and population have a positive and significant impact on trade flows (Srinivasan Archana, 2008). Likewise the previous studies, the study conducted in India reported the similar findings, i.e. larger distance reduces mutual trade and a larger GDP and population of the trading countries increase trade. It was also found in the study that size of the economy is an important influential factor explaining the inflow and outflow of goods and services. A study similar to previous studies was conducted to examine the impact of gdp on trade flows of a country. The study supported the findings of the previous studies that tariff barrier of importing country have a negative and significant impact on exporting countries, where as the study also reported that the larger gdp and population have a positive impact on bilateral exports of countries (Tamirisa, 1999). A study conducted by, Ghartey (1993), using economic data of three countries (United States, Japan and Taiwan) to examine the impact of gdp of each country on its trade flows, it was found in the study that United states GDP promoted its exports, where as for Japan and Taiwan the impact was opposite (Chen, 2009). Similarly another study conducted by, Jung Marshall (1985), to examine the relationship between GDP and exports, the study used thirty one years of GDP and exports data from year 1950 to year 1981 for 37 developing countries, it was found in the study that there is no relationship between GDP and exports of 37 developing countries except Israel (Chen, 2009). China A study conducted in china by, Shen (1999) to examine the relationship between exports and GDP, the study used twenty one years of exports and GDP data from year 1977 to year 1998, the study found that there is a short term relationship between the Chinese GDP and exports, where there is no long term relationship between the two variables (Chen, 2009). Pakistan A study conducted in Pakistan to examine the impact of GDP on Pakistan trade flows, it was found in the study that an increase in GDP i.e. increase in domestic income results in increase in imports, for instance a one-percent increase in Pakistan GDP increases imports from US and Japan by an equivalent percent. Where as if compared to UK and Germany the trade flow is positive and small but not significant (Akhtar Malik, 2000). Inflation What exactly is inflation? A persistent increase in the level of consumer prices or a persistent decline in the purchasing power of money, caused by an increase in available currency and credit beyond the proportion of available goods and services. Inflation occurs when the price level rises from one period to the next (Robinson, 2007). The Impact of Inflation on International Trade A study conducted in U.S, Robinson (2007) to investigate the impact of inflation on international trade and small business. It was found that inflation creates uncertainty that discourages productive activity, savings and investing and ultimately reduces the competitiveness of a country in international trade. It was also found that if inflation is not offset by a nation with a less valuable currency, the U.S.s exports become more expensive and less attractive. This makes other countries imports more attractive. As a result this forms an economy of unbalanced trade with more reduced U.S. economy and international trade (Robinson, 2007). Inflation has many disadvantages; it creates uncertainty, in that people do not know what the money they earn today buy tomorrow. This uncertainty discourages productive activity, saving and investing. Inflation reduces the competitiveness of the country in international trade. If inflation is not offset by a nation with a less valuable currency, the U.S.s exports become more expensive and less attractive. This makes other countries imports more attractive. This forms an economy of unbalanced trade which results in a much more reduced U.S. economy (Robinson, 2007). Inflation and Trade A study conducted, Fitoussi (2007), to investigate the impact of inflation on trade found that in the last 15 years or so, disinflation and the increase of world trade seem to have gone hand in hand. It was found that in the past three decades a downward trend in inflation caused an inward trend in world trade (Fitoussi, 2007). The first fact that can be observed is that the past three decades were characterized both by an upward trend in world trade (measured as exports over GDP) and a downward trend in inflation (measured as yearly change in CPI) (Fitoussi, 2007). Remittances In general remittances are defined as a portion of the earnings a migrant sends to relatives back home, IMF (2010). It has been estimated that workers migrated to different countries send home between US$ 2000 to US$ 5000 a year, i.e. in terms of percentage around 20% to 30% of their income. It has been found in the previous researches that poor countries receive larger amount of remittances as compared to high income countries for instance In 2007, the top three recipients of remittances India, China, and Mexico-each received over $25 billion. But smaller and poorer countries tend to receive relatively larger remittances when the size of the economy is taken into account. Expressing remittances as a share of GDP, the top recipients were Tajikistan (36 percent), Moldova (36 percent), Tonga (32 percent) and Kyrgyz Republic (27percent). Remittances as a share of GDP amounted to 3.6 percent of GDP in low-income countries in 2006 compared to 1.7 percent in middle-income countries (Ratha Mohapatra, 2007). Numbers of studies have been conducted to examine the impact of remittances on the trade of a country; these studies provided a mix of evidence regarding the impact of remittances on countries trade, for instance some studies provided the evidence that remittances can improve a countrys creditworthiness and thereby enhance its access to international capital markets for financing infrastructure and other development projects, in other words it can be said that increase in inflow of remittances increase the foreign reserves of a country, hence it enhances the ability of a country to meet its foreign trade obligations (paying of import bills). This enhancement of country ability indicates a sign of increase in its economic activity as a result it attracts foreign investors and foreign export orders (Ratha Mohapatra, 2007). For instance the ratio of debt to exports of goods and services, a key indebtedness indicator, would increase significantly if remittances were excluded from the denominator. Exchange Rate Turkey A study conducted, Vergil (2001), to investigate the impact of exchange rate volatility on Turkish trade flows comprising on 10 years data from year 1990 to year 2000. It was found in the study that exchange rate volatility has a negative impact on Turkish trade flows. Africa A study conducted to analyze the impact of exchange rate volatility on African countries trade flows. The study used 33 sub-Saharan African countries exchange rate macro-economic performance indicators data. It was found in the study that exchange rates contributed a great deal towards Africas poor economic performance, Ghura Grennes (1993), i.e. overvaluation in exchange rate resulted in lower level of exports, lower level of real GDP per Capita and lower level of Savings (Shatz Tarr: 1990). G-7 Countries A study conducted by international monetary fund to investigate the impact of exchange fluctuation on world trade, in the study the G-7 countries trade was taken as world trade. The purpose of the study was to compare the results of IMF 1984 study a

Aerospace Engineers :: essays research papers

Aerospace engineers examine, analyze, design, produce, and occasionally install components that make up aircraft, spacecraft, high-altitude vehicles, and high-altitude delivery systems (missiles). Satisfaction with the romantic image of rocket building can buoy many engineers through the highly anonymous work environments that many of them face. Individuals don't assemble rockets; teams do, dozens of teams working in highly supervised coordination. An aerospace engineer plays some part on one of the teams, spending more of her time (roughly 70 percent) in a lab, at a computer, and assembling reports than doing anything else. Not being able to see the "big picture" frustrates some professionals. The path to becoming an aerospace engineer is a rigorous one, but those who manage to survive the difficult lift-off emerge with an above-average degree of career satisfaction. Academic requirements are strict and wide-ranging: Physics, chemistry, computer science, mathematics, materials science, statistics and engineering courses provide the base for any aspiring rocket scientist. Some colleges offer a degree in aerospace engineering; others offer a more generalized engineering degree with some coursework in aerospace engineering. These courses might include aerospace guidance systems, extreme-altitude material science, and the physics of high-altitude radiation. Internships, summer jobs, and any experience in the field are helpful, as entry into this industry is highly competitive. Many aspirants may need to relocate to California, Washington State, or Texas, where the majority of defense industry aerospace work is done, to work for companies such as NASA, Boeing and Lockheed Martin.Two years into their job an aerospace engineer can be planning on being Junior members of research staff are swamped with work, both in the lab and in offices, crunching data and organizing research. More like "lab assistants," their early years are marked by relatively menial tasks (testing of equipment, tracking results) with little input into the testing or recommendation process. Average hours and pay characterize these environments, but education continues apace. Few people leave the profession during these years; the hours already devoted in school make it easier to tolerate these few extra workplace indignities. And in about five years one will be leading research teams and turn into people managers as well as project managers. This is an unanticipated turn of events for some, as it removes them from the challenging, intellectually rarefied environment they enjoy and places them in a more administrative role. Most significant design and production work is done in these years.

Boston Massacre Essay -- essays research papers

The Boston Massacre is considered by many historians to be the first battle of the Revolutionary War. The fatal incident happened on March 5 of 1770. The massacre resulted in the death of five colonists. British troops in the Massachusetts Bay Colony were there to stop demonstrations against the Townshend Acts and keep order, but instead they provoked outrage. The British soldiers and citizens brawled in streets and fought in bars. “The citizens viewed the British soldiers as potential oppressors, competitors for jobs, and a treat to social mores'; (Mahin 1). A defiant anti-British fever was lingering among the townspeople.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are three major things that led to the Boston Massacre: First was the growing mistrust among the British soldiers and Americans. There were a number of other incidents were the British clashed with the patriots and their supporters. Individual soldiers were beaten on street corners and soldiers abused unarmed civilians. In all the Americans in Boston made it clear that the British soldiers were unwanted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second reason is somewhat odd. The removal of two out of four regiments meant there were to inadequate amounts of soldiers to keep the peace. There were enough on the other hand to remind the patriots of the great British military.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last reason would be the revolt of the Townshend Acts. The patriots and Americans did not agree and strife with the British soldiers over it. The Act built tension between the two. (Griswold 23) On March 5, 1770 the dreadful day came. A mob of people went in front of the Customs Office in Boston Massachusetts and started to throw stuff and give insults at the soldiers. As a result to this so-called harassment the soldiers fired on the crowd. The first to die was a black man named Crispus Attucks. He was a native of Frainghan, Massachusetts. He escaped from slavery in 1750 and had become a sailor. Crispus Attucks is considered the first martyr of the American Independence (Mahin 1). The four others who died were Samuel gray, a rope maker; James Caldwell, a sailor; Samuel Maverick, a seventeen year old apprentice and Patrick Carr, a leather worker and Irish immigrant. All in which were unarmed and brutally murdered. The soldiers killed three, mortally wounded two others, and wounded six. How much ha... ...at were stationed in Boston were guilty for many other crimes. I think either the soldiers should have been guilty for firing without an order or that Preston should have been guilty for giving the order to fire. According to Liesenfelt, the eight men said they were following Preston orders and should be tried at one time (1). So the soldiers are saying they were following orders which means Preston is guilty. Also three black witnesses gave testimony that they did hear an order to fire by Preston. Then again a merchant said he did not hear an order. Either way the soldiers and/or Preston should have been guilty. I think it a lot easier to miss something said than to be hearing things. So the evidence is there that Preston gave an order to fire. I feel the verdict of the trial of the Boston Massacre should have been “guilty';. The victims were unarmed and brutally murdered. I soldier enraged the citizens and were guilty of many other crimes. The order to fire give from Preston proves he’s guilty of the crime of manslaughter. My conclusion is that the soldiers and/or Preston are guilty. “Half a pale of blood had been spilled into he snow'; (Mahin 2).